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UNITED STATES OF AMEEICA. 



APPLIED 

MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

WOLFF. 



Richters Chemistry. 



A Standard and Popular Text-Book. 



EACH VOLUME SOLD SEPARATELY. 

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Second American from the Fourth German 
Edition. Thoroughly Revised and Corrected. 89 Wood-cuts and Colored 
Lithograph of Spectra. i2mo. Cloth, S2.00. 

THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS, or, Organic Chemistry. 
First American trom the Fourth German Edition. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, 
S3.00. 



AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION 

BY EDGAR F. SMITH, M.A., Ph.D., 

Prof, of Chemistry in Wittenberg College, Springfield; formerly in the Laboratories of the 

University of Pennsylvania ; Member of the Chemical Societies of Berlin and 

Paris, of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, tic. 



In most of the chemical text-books of the present day, one of the striking 
features and difficulties with which teachers have to contend is the separate pre- 
sentation of the theories and facts of the science. These are usually taught 
apart, as if entirely independent of each other. In this work, which has been 
received with such hearty welcome, theory and fact are brought close together, 
and their intimate relation clearly shown. From careful observation of experi- 
ments and their results, the student is led to a correct understanding of the 
interesting principles of chemistry. The matter is so arranged as to adapt the 
work to the use of the beginner, as well as for the more advanced of chemical 
science. 

From Prof. B. Silliman, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. 

" It is decidedly a good book, and in some respects the best manual we have." 

From F. A. Gexth, Prof, of Chemistry, and F. A. Genth, Jr., Ass't Prof, of Chemistry, 
University of Pennsylvania. 

" We have examined with much care the ' Inorganic Chemistry' of Prof. Victor von Richter, 
recently translated by Dr. E. F. Smith. Both theoretical and general Chemistry are treated in 
such a clear and comprehensive manner that it has become one of the leading text-books for a 
University course in Germany. We are indebted to Dr. Smith for his translation of this excel- 
lent work, which may help to facilitate the study of chemistry in this country." 

From the American Chemical Review. 

" These new features alone will recommend the work to teachers as well as students, while the 
eminent success of the former German edition amply proves that it also possesses more than 
ordinary merit in other directions." 

P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO., Publishers, Philadelphia. 



APPLIED 



Medical Chemistry. 



A MANUAL FOR 



Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 



BY, 



LAWRENCE WOLFF, M.D., 

DEMONSTRATOR OF CHEMISTRY JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE, MEMBER OF THE 

GERMAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, THE PHILADELPHIA COUNTY MEDICAL 

SOCIETY, THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, ETC. 






if 



n 




PHILADELPHIA: 

P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO., 

1012 Walnut Street. 

1885. 



Copyrighted, 1885, by P. Blakiston, Son & Co. 



PREFACE. 



As a rule, students at medical colleges are mainly acquainted 
with the principles of chemistry, but not their practical appli- 
cation. The result is, frequently, that their chemical knowledge 
is soon forgotten. Reference is freely made in medical text- 
books to chemical processes, but their execution is not satis- 
factorily dwelt upon. In the special works on chemistry they 
are exhaustively treated, but these works are intended for the 
chemist more than the physician. To collate and elaborate 
information from them to apply to special cases can hardly be 
expected of the busy practitioner. My object in writing this 
book is to present in as simple and concise a manner as accu- 
racy and easy execution will admit, such matter as will save 
much research and labor. 

The arrangement of this volume has been made in accord- 
ance with my system of demonstrations ; and the latest and 
more rational terms, forms, and processes, as well as their modi- 
fications, have been given wherever possible and advantageous. 
To afford exercises for the student, I have appended to each 
part a syllabus of the principal processes the physician may 
find useful in his practice. 

Though I have given my own version of the different 
manipulations from my personal experience, I have also drawn 
freely on the following works : 

Fresenius, " Anleitung zur Qualitativen und Quantitativen 
Analyse ;" Hoffmann and Power, " Examination of Medicinal 
Chemicals;" Wormley, " Micro-chemistry of Poisons ;" Sonnen- 



6 PREFACE. 

schein, " Handbuch der Gerichtlichen Chemie ;" Witthaus, 
" General Medical Chemistry ;" Gorup Besanez, " Physiologische 
Chemie ;" Hoppe-Seyler, " Physiologische Chemie ;" Charles, 
"Physiological and Pathological Chemistry;" Loebisch, "An- 
leitung zur Harn-analyse ;" Marshall and Smith, " Chemical 
Analysis of the Urine ;" Tyson, " Practical Examination of 
Urine ;" Ludwig, " Medicinische Chemie," et al. 

I have written this volume as a manual for the medi- 
cal student in his college course, but I trust that it will also find 
a place in the library of the practitioner as a book of reference. 

L. W. 

333 South Twelfth Street, 

Philadelphia, 1885. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 
Apparatus and Manipulations. 

TAGK 

Physical Apparatus, 9 

Specific Gravity, 12 

Manipulations and Technical Apparatus, 15 

Analysis, 19 

Reactions and Reagents, 23 

Test Papers, 27 

Volumetric Tests, 27 

Alkalimetry, 27 

Acidimetry, 28 

Volumetric Analysis by Precipitation, 29 

Stoichiometry, 30 

Syllabus of Part I, 33 

PART II. 

Chemistry of Poisons. 

Antimony, 35 

Arsenic, 37 

Copper, 42 

Mercury, . . 44 

Lead, 47 

Phosphorus, 49 

Alkalies and Acids as Poisons, 51 

Potassic Hydrate, 52 

Sodic Hydrate, 52 

Ammonium Hydrate, 53 

Sulphuric Acid, 53 

Nitric Acid, 54 

Hydrochloric Acid, 55 

Carbolic Acid, 56 

Oxalic Acid, 56 

Hydrocyanic Acid, 57 

Syllabus of Part II, 58 

PART III. 

Physiological Chemistry. 

Albuminoids, or Protein Bodies, 61 

Collagens, 68 

Coloring Bodies, 69 

Biliary Pigments, . 70 

Urinary Pigments, : 71 

Digestive Ferments, 72 

Organic Amines and Amides, 73 

Compound Ureas, 74 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Ureids from Uric Acid, 75 

Amido Acids, 77 

Biliary Acids, 77 

Carbohydrates, 79 

Amyloses, 79 

Saccharoses, 81 

Glucoses, 82 

Alcohols, 83 

Volatile Fatty Acids, 84 

Glycollic Series, 85 

Oxalic Series, 86 

Acrylic Series, 86 

Glycerides, 86 

Syllabus of Part III, 87 

PART IV. 

Excretions and Concretions. 

Urine, , 89 

Analysis of Urine, 93 

Inorganic Constituents, . . . 93 

Organic Constituents, 97 

Urinary Coloring Bodies, 104 

Abnormal Constituents of Urine, 106 

Adventitious Substances in Urine, 116 

Urinary Sediments, ' 118 

Cursory Examination of Urine, 120 

Urinary Concretions, 121 

Biliary Concretions, 124 

Faeces and their Analysis, 126 

Syllabus of Part IV, 129 

PART V. 

Sanitary Chemistry. 

Atmospheric Air, 132 

Water, 135 

Milk, 141 

Flour, 144 

Bread, . I45 

Preserved Fruits and Vegetables, 146 

Confections and Candies, , 147 

Wines, .147 

Malt Liquors, 149 

Whiskey, 150 

Brandy, irj 

Vinegar, 152 

Pharmaceutical Preparations and Their Active Principles, 152 

Syllabus of Part V, 159 

APPENDIX. 

Ptomaines, 1 61 

Table of Elements, ....»..« 164 

Weights and Measures, 165 

Table of Equivalents of Centigrade and Fahrenheit Thermometric Scales, 166 

Table of the Tension of Aqueous Vapor, 167 

Index, 169 



APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 



PART I. 

APPARATUS AND MANIPULATIONS. 

The execution of chemical manipulations depends on the 
employment of certain apparatus, which may be considered 
under the head of physical and technical. 

PHYSICAL APPARATUS. 

Physical apparatus comprises the instruments of precision 
needed to determine the influence of physical force upon 
matter. As this is relative in its nature, standards have 
been adopted by which to determine it. Gravity influences 
bodies by attraction in proportion to their amount. The 
attraction exerted upon bodies by the earth, manifested by 
the arrest of their progress towards its centre, has been 
termed their weight. 

This is ascertained by scales or balances, which in their 
execution involve different mechanical principles, to overcome 
friction, etc. The weights employed, almost universally, in 
chemical manipulations are those of the so-called metric sys- 
tem, depending for its unit on the metre, the ten-millionth 
part of the quadrant of the earth. The metre is equal to 10 
decimetres, ioo centimetres, or iooo millimetres. The litre, the 
unit of fluid measure, is the cube of one decimetre, equal to 
IOOO cubic centimetres (c.c). The unit of weight is the gramme 
(grm.) the one one-thousandth part (1^0) of a litre of pure 
water at its maximum density. One gramme is equal to 10 
decigrammes, or ioo centigrammes, or IOOO milligrammes. 
Thus one cubic centimetre (c.c.) of water at its maximum den- 
sity is equal to one gramme in weight. As the weights in or- 

2 



IO APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

dinary use differ materially from those of the metric system, a 
table is annexed in this work for the ready conversion of the 
one into the other. The measurement of liquids and gases is 
accomplished by means of graduated vessels or tubes, termed 
respectively graduates, flasks, cylindrical jars, pipettes, burettes 
of various denominations, marked to express a certain quantity 
at 1 5° C. and suitably subdivided to admit of determining units 
and parts thereof. 

The influence of heat is determined by instruments known 
as thermometers which depend upon the equal expansion of cer- 
tain bodies at increased temperatures or vice versa. The usual 
instruments employed for this purpose are the Mercury Ther- 
mometers, consisting of a bulb of mercury with an elongated 
and graduated tube for measuring the expansion of the mercury 
in vacuo. Good thermometers should be of even calibre of tube, 
be absolute vacua, and be equally graduated into degrees and 
tenth or fifth parts thereof. The scales generally employed to 
indicate the temperature by the mercurial expansion are various ; 
the " Centigrade," almost universally employed by chemists and 
in chemical text-books, has a scale divided into one hundred 
equal parts between the freezing point and boiling point of pure 
water at normal barometric pressure. Thus 0° C. would indi- 
cate the freezing point of water while ioo° C. would be the point 
at which pure water boils, with the intermediate points to give 
relative measure for the approach thereto. The other principal 
scale commonly used in this country is termed " Fahrenheit," 
which fixes the freezing point at 32 F. and that of boiling at 
2I2 C F. As the centigrade scale should be invariably used in 
chemical manipulations, a table for readily converting this into 
Fahrenheit and vice versa will be found in the last pages of this 
volume. 

The influence of atmospheric pressure is determined by 
means of a Barometer, consisting of a column of mercury, 
which is considered normally equipoised at a height of 760 
millimetres at o° C. temperature. The measurement of gases 
will be largely influenced by this agency, and corrections 
should be applied to insure accuracy (compare Dietrich's 
tables, under Urea). 

The influence of galvanism upon matter takes an important 



PHYSICAL APPARATUS. II 

part in chemical relations, and is used variously to bring about 
reduction and decomposition, but as its scope embraces the 
consideration of other physical principles, the student is referred 
to the text-books on Physics for the details of the manipulations 
depending on it. 

LigJit and optical phenomena are utilized for chemical pro- 
cesses in a way that makes their influence of great import- 
ance. 

Spectroscopy. — Light in passing through a prism is dis- 
solved into various colors termed a spectrum. Spectra of dif- 
ferent substances produce variations in the positions of certain 
bands according to their locality. This phenomenon proves of 
importance to the medical chemist in the determination of 
blood, as oxyhemoglobin, reduced haemoglobin, alkaline hae- 
matin, etc. 

Polarimetry. — A ray of light in passing through certain 
media is divided into two, and thus doubly refracted it is termed 
polarized. The determination of the* influence of a body on 
polarized light, with a suitable instrument for this purpose, is of 
great importance, as many bodies have distinct analytical char- 
acters in this respect. This instrument consists of a polarizer, 
an analyzer, and a container. In the measure that optically 
active substances necessitate the rotation of the analyzer to the 
right or left, for extinction of different tints they are termed 
dextro-gyrous ( + ) or Icevo-gyrous ( — ). The specific rotary power 
of a body expressed in degrees and tenths thereof is ascertained 
by dissolving a certain quantity in a definite quantity of solvent 
and noting the degree of rotation for a certain column. If \_a\ is 
the specific rotary power looked for, w the weight of the sub- 
stance contained in I c.c. solvent, and / the length of column, 
the product of the latter two by division into the degree of rota- 
tion, a, observed would give specific rotary power, \_d] = j^t. 

With monochromatic light the specific rotary power is ex- 
pressed by [#] D . 

Knowing the specific rotary power of a body, the amount of 
substance contained in a certain column of solution can be 

demonstrated by the following; formula, W= r -, , 

This is of special value in determining the amount of sugar in 



12 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

urine, as well as the quantity of alkaloids and other bodies 
present in solvents. 

Osmosis is of great utility in chemical manipulations for 
separating colloids and crystalloids, especially in the separa- 
tion of alkaloids and their salts, by dialysis, from the extracted 
mass of organic matter in toxicological analysis. 

Specific Gravity. — While the ordinary weighing with bal- 
ances and weights would show the apparent weight, the absolute 
weight of a body could only be ascertained by weighing them in 
vacuo, whereas the relative weight of equal volumes of matter 
is termed their specific weight ; the amount expressing how 
many times a body is heavier than the equal volume of some 
standard substance it can displace, its specific gravity. The 
method of determining the specific gravity of different sub- 
stances differs according to the state they are in. The specific 
gravity of gaseous substances is not easily determined and would 
come within the province of the chemist proper more so than 
the physician. It depends upon the weight of a certain volume 
of gas as compared with an equal volume of atmospheric air at 
equal temperatures and atmospheric pressure. The specific 
gravity of liquids is determined principally by two methods. 
The standard for this, as well as for solid bodies, is the weight 
of an equal volume of pure water at the same temperature. In 
speaking of a solution of sodic hydrate, specific gravity 1.8, 
we mean a solution which would weigh one and eight-tenth 
times as much as an equal volume of pure water at the same 
temperature. Thus the specific gravity of a saline solution 
affords means for the determination of the quantity dissolved 
therein. This, in the absence of other products, such as sugar 
or albumen, etc., is often employed for the approximate indica- 
tion of the amount of solids in urine. 

The most accurate and concise means of ascertaining the 
specific gravity of liquids is by the specific gravity or density 
flask, also called picnometer. This is a flask of known weight, 
usually of a capacity of 100 c.c. at 15 C. It is provided with 
a well-fitting glass stopper, with a capillary opening. The 
liquid to be examined should be reduced by surrounding it 
with cold or iced water to 15 C, or the difference in tem- 
perature should be well noted beforehand, and correction ap- 



PHYSICAL APPARATUS. I 3 

plied for the expansion or contraction by temperature. The 
flask should be well dried, and then completely filled by im- 
mersion and adaptation of the stopper under the surface of the 
liquid, if this is possible on account of its character. After fill- 
ing, it is dried on the outside by blotting-paper, and weighed 
on the scales already containing the tare or counterpoise for 
the empty flask. The specific gravity is then obtained by mul- 
tiplying the weight of liquid in the bottle with iooo, and 
dividing the product by the weight of water which the bottle 
is marked to hold. Thus, if the liquid be urine, and the 
weight so arrived at 103.25, the product would be 103250; 
divided by 100, would give as specific gravity 1032.5 ; water as 
1000. Where a 1000 c.c. flask is employed, the amount of 
weight of the liquid would give its specific gravity at once. 

The most common practice for determining the specific 
gravity of liquids is by means of hydrometers. These depend 
for their action on the fact that they displace a volume of water 
equal in weight to their own. While they are very serviceable 
and sufficiently accurate, if the liquid be of the temperature it 
is intended to be, they must be purposely constructed to answer 
for liquids lighter than water, or for those heavier, or for the 
purpose of examining liquids varying but little inside of 1000 
and 1050, as is the case with urine, milk, etc. They should in- 
dicate on their scales only the specific gravity and not the 
amount of milk or water, etc., as is the case with some of them 
in the market. To have a thoroughly reliable hydrometer for 
urinary examination, it should be compared at various de- 
grees of immersion, with liquids, the specific gravity of which 
has been previously determined by the specific-gravity flask. 

The specific gravity of solids is obtained by various methods 
according to their character and condition. 

Solids heavier than water, and in a compact state, should first 
be weighed in air, and the weight thus obtained be noted. Then 
the respective solid is attached by a fine silk thread to the 
hook on one arm of a specific-gravity balance, and weighed 
while immersed in a beaker full of distilled water of the same 
temperature as the surrounding air. The weight obtained of 
the immersed substance will be found less than the former. 
By subtracting the weight in water from that in air, then the 



14 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

weight in air divided by the difference will give the specific 
gravity. Thus a urinary calculus, well dried, was found to 
weigh 

in air, 28.50 grams. 

in water, 18.04 " 

difference, 10.46 " 

the quotient, 2 "5°= 2.71, is the specific gravity of the calculus. 
10.46 

If, however, instead of being insoluble in water, a substance 
is very soluble therein or if it is decomposed by it, as sodium 
or potassium, the determination would have to be obtained in 
a liquid of known specific gravity not affecting the substance, 
and determined as per following example : 

If a piece of fused potassic hydroxide (caustic potassa) 

were to weigh in air . . . . . . 10.25 

a specific gravity vial of benzin (sp. gr. 0.730) were to 

weigh . . ... . . . . . 73.00 

the combined amounts would be .... S3. 2 5 

the weight of potassa in benzin . . . . .« 80.50 

the loss would be .*.... 2.75 

Weight of potassa, 10.2c; , , c , • x , 

, — = 3 7 2 X 0.730 (sp. gr. of benzin) =2.71 (sp. gr. 

IOSS, 2./5 , 

of potassa). 

That is, the loss of weight of the bottle containing the ben- 
zin and potassa from the combined weight of potassa and bottle 
filled up with benzin, divided into the weight in air of the po- 
tassa gives the quotient, which, multiplied with the specific 
gravity of the benzin, gives specific gravity of potassa. 

Solids in a pulverulent state (powders) require to be weighed 
in the air, and subsequently are introduced in a specific-gravity 
vial, and by shaking first with a little water, to thoroughly sat- 
urate them, in order to rid them of adhering air. The vial is 
then filled with water, and the loss so sustained divided into 
the weight in air will give its specific gravity, as, for instance : 

weight of iron by hydrogen, ..... 30.0 

weight of water in vial, ...... 100.0 

total weight, ........ 130.0 

weight of iron and water in vial, .... 126.2 

loss, .......... 3.8 

Weight of iron in air, 30.0 c , , . 

r——= 7.89, sp. gr. of reduced iron, 
loss, 3*8 



MANIPULATIONS AND TECHNICAL APPARATUS. 



15 



Solids lighter than water are examined for their specific 
gravity by attaching to them a substance sufficiently heavy to 
sink them in water. 

To ascertain, for instance, the specific gravity of a piece of 

cacao butter weighing ....... 33.00 

attach to it a piece of iron weighing . 



joint weight, 
iron and cacao butter in water, . 



loss of both together, . 

loss of iron alone (previously ascertained), 

leaves loss of weight of cacao butter alone, 

33: _ 0.96, specific gravity of cacao butter. 

34.00 



50.00 

83.00 
41.50 



41.50 
7-30 

34.20 



MANIPULATIONS AND TECHNICAL APPA- 
RATUS. 

As already stated, chemical processes depend on certain 
manipulations which in turn require the employment of suita- 
ble apparatus facilitating operations. These may be termed 
technical in contradistinction to the physical apparatus just 
described. The most important operations can be classed and 
subdivided as follows : 

Solutions. — These can be defined as simple and chemical. 
Under simple solutions are understood such in which the sol- 
vent does not change the chemical nature of the dissolved sub- 
stance, and from which they may be recovered chemically un- 
changed on evaporation of the former, or under conditions 
favoring their separation. Thus sodic chloride will be dissolved 
in water without change, and can be obtained from this simple 
solution by evaporation or by mixing it with alcohol without 
undergoing a chemical change. Solutions are best effected by 
powdering the substance to be dissolved, and, if necessary, agi- 
tating them in a mortar or by the aid of heat, in either test- 
tubes, capsules, flasks or beaker-glasses. Heat with most sub- 
stances facilitates and expedites solution. When a solvent has 
taken up as much as it can hold in solution at a relative tem- 
perature, it is termed saturated; but this can be spoken of only 
at the temperature referred to, which, when not otherwise ex- 
pressed, is taken at 15 C. For simple solutions distilled water 



1 6 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

is the general solvent employed if not otherwise stated, or if 
alcohol be used its strength should be stated, and if acids or 
alkalies, their specific gravity must be given and their purity 
assured. 

Chemical solutions may be described as such in which the 
solvent exercises a chemical influence over the substance to be 
dissolved, changing either in their chemical character in such 
a manner that on evaporation or precipitation a substance of 
different chemical composition results. Chemical solutions 
can be promoted by heat, but they are not influenced by it in 
strength, as they reach only a stage of neutralization, but not 
of variable saturation as in simple solutions. Thus if mercuric 
oxide is dissolved in hydrogen nitrate (nitric acid), and the 
acid is neutralized to a certain point, no further action can be 
induced by application of heat, and a simple solution of mercu- 
ric nitrate has taken place which on evaporation will yield the 
latter mercuric salt. 

Crystallization. — This is understood as the molecular 
aggregation of matter in regular and mathematical form. It 
is usually obtained by the transition of a substance from the 
gaseous or liquid into a solid state. Thus to effect crystalliza- 
tion of a substance from a simple solution it is necessary to 
either reduce the volume of solvent as in NaCl or obtain satu- 
ration at a higher temperature, which is gradually reduced (as 
for instance in boric agd). The remaining liquids after crystal- 
lization are termed mother-liquors. The water, which forms an 
integral part of the crystal, to assume its form, is termed the 
water of crystallization. Bodies without crystalline formation 
are termed amorphous. Crystallization offers valuable aid in 
the recognition of certain bodies, especially in urinary analysis, 
such as urea nitrate, uric acid, triple-phosphates, etc. 

Precipitation may be termed the breaking up of solutions 
and can be either mechanical or chemical, according- to the 
manner in which the homogeneous nature of the solution is 
destroyed. Thus if the character of the solvent is altered by 
the admixture of other liquids, the substance held in solution 
would be precipitated without chemical change, as in the case 
of sodic chloride by the addition of alcohol to its solution ; 
this would be mechanical in its nature, but if the precipitant 



MANIPULATIONS AND TECHNICAL APPARATUS. 1 7 

were to chemically alter the precipitate, that it would be unable 
to be longer held in solution, the effect would be chemical, as 
by the addition of ammonic hydrate to the above mentioned 
solution of mercuric nitrate. According to their character the 
precipitates are termed respectively crystalline, amorphous, 
flocculent, gelatinous and curdy, or if slight and held lightly in 
suspension and causing turbidity, or if sufficient only to impart 
a pearly light, as opalescent. 

Filtration and Decantation, Desiccation and Weigh- 
ing of Precipitates. — Decantation is ,most suitably em- 
ployed for heavy precipitates, which are not partly or wholly 
suspended in the liquid. It is accomplished by pouring off the 
liquid from the precipitate or by removing it by either syphon 
or pipette. By frequent addition of distilled water the precipi- 
tate is then washed out until the washings cease to show saline 
ingredients by chemical tests. 

Filtration is the separation of precipitates by means of an 
interposed septum. The septum for this purpose may either 
be pure sand as for strong acids, or asbestos, also muslin, or ab- 
sorbent cotton for non-corrosive liquids ; but best of all and 
most generally employed for watery, alcoholic, etc. solutions is 
white, chemically pure, filtering paper, such as is known as 
"Swedish." While plaited filters are employed in filtering solu- 
tions to clear them from suspended impurities, the plain filter 
only should be employed when the precipitate is to be used. 
For precipitates soluble in an excess of the solvent or partly or 
wholly suspended therein filtration alone is admissible, and the 
washing on the filter should be accomplished by means of a 
wash-bottle or spritz. The filter should be washed out on the 
funnel before adding the liquid holding the precipitate, and 
when this is to be done the pouring out should be guided by 
a glass rod. To remove precipitates from the filter the wash- 
ings should first be allowed to thoroughly strain off, and the 
filter should be placed on bibulous paper, with which gentle 
pressure is exerted until on examination the precipitate is found 
almost detached, and may be removed by a spatula to either a 
capsule, beaker, test-tube or watch-glass, as required. If the 
precipitate is to be dried, it may be placed with the filter in 
a dish or watch-glass, and this placed in a water bath or 



1 8 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

warm place, or under a desiccator with concentrated sulphuric 
acid. To weigh a precipitate it is first well dried, placed in a 
watch-glass, which is covered by another, and both secured by 
a clamp. The precipitate is then weighed and again placed in 
a water bath or desiccator until on repeated weighings no 
further loss is experienced. 

Distillation depends upon volatilizing a liquid and condens- 
ing its vapors in apparatus for that purpose. Distillation of 
water is usually effected by copper apparatus suitably adapted 
to a worm or condenser. When water is distilled the first run 
contains always some gaseous admixtures, and should be 
thrown away, as well as after fresh additions thereof to the 
boiler. For chemical manipulations on a small scale distilla- 
tion is often carried on in retorts connected with a receiver cov- 
ered with felt or cotton, over which water is allowed to drop ; 
but more generally, where the amount warrants the same, a 
flask connected with a bent tube to a Liebig's condenser is 
used. 

It is well to remember here that tubes for distilling or gas 
generating purposes should have the end entering the flask 
broken off obliquely to admit the free dropping back of any 
condensed liquid at that point. 

The lower end of the condenser should be loosely fitted into 
a receiver. For distilling at a certain temperature, as required 
for separating liquids of different boiling points, as in fractional 
distillation, a thermometer is fixed into the retort or flask em- 
ployed. 

Evaporation. — Where the recovery of the solvent is of no 
consideration so as to involve distillation, or when the amounts 
are so small as not to admit it, it is effected by pouring the liquid 
into an evaporating dish, and if overheating cannot change or 
alter the products, placing it on a tripod, interposing a piece of 
wire gauze between it and the flame. When evaporation is to 
be carried on at a low heat, a water or sand bath and a well 
regulated flame should invariably be used, with a thermometer 
adjusted to indicate the degree of heat. 

Incineration is performed for the purpose of obtaining the 
fixed salts of compounds. It is conducted in either platinum 
or porcelain vessels made for that purpose, suspended on pipe- 



ANALYSIS. 1 9 

clay or platinum triangles in an inclined position, over the flame 
of a Bunsen lamp. When the product is to be weighed it 
should be cooled over sulphuric acid in a bell-glass. If the 
salts are to be removed as such, the substance should be at 
first only carbonized in the covered crucible, then the salts ex- 
tracted by suitable solvents and the dried residue again further 
incinerated as described above. It is to be borne in mind that 
many substances affect platinum vessels, and the latter should 
for that reason not be employed under such circumstances. 

Analysis. 

As chemistry treats of the composition of matter, that por- 
tion of it intended to disclose, by the application of its princi- 
ples, the composition of certain bodies, either as a group or as 
an individual body, is termed analytical clicmistry, and the 
process employed for determining it, chemical analysis. This 
again may be subdivided under two heads, depending on the 
nature of the research, which, if only for the determination of 
the character of a body, is called qualitative, but if intended 
to convey information in regard to the amount of a body pres- 
ent, or the amount of other constituents in a chemical group 
or combination, it is known as quantitative analysis. The two 
require different methods of procedure, and while the former 
will be the one principally employed by physicians in applying 
chemistry for diagnostic purposes, a sufficient knowledge of 
the latter should be had to observe pathic conditions and their 
changes. Thus while it is of absolute importance for the 
physician to determine the character of a urinary calculus, to 
shape his therapy accordingly, the quantity thereof or of its 
components, would be of less value ; whereas to control the 
progress of a case of diabetes mellitus the knowledge of the 
amount of sugar excreted in a certain time would be of para- 
mount importance. A knowledge of the reactions and reagents, 
their relations to other bodies, and their products, are the prin- 
cipal requirements for analytical work, especially so for quan- 
titative analysis. 

Volumetric Analysis.— This is the application of certain 
solutions (volumetric tests, or standard, or normal solutions) of 
known strength, which, according to the law of fixed and defi- 



20 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

nite proportions, form characteristic and readily recognizable 
compounds with the substance known in character, but un- 
known in regard to the amount present. The apparatus prin- 
cipally employed in volumetric analyses are pipettes for 
delivery of certain quantities, and burettes of different con- 
struction for measuring the quantity of tests employed ; also 
beakers and capsules for precipitation or neutralization as the 
process may require. 

Volumetric determinations may be arrived at either by neu- 
tralization, oxidation, reduction or precipitation. 

Neutralization is employed to ascertain the strength and 
quantitative presence of alkalies (alkalimetry), or of acids 
(acidimetry), the point of neutralization being determined by 
litmus solution, or, better still, for mineral acids, by using a solu- 
tion of phenolphtalein containing I gram in a mixture of 15 
grams of alcohol and 75 grams of water; the reagent being for 
the former usually a standard solution of oxalic acid or sulphuric 
acid, and for the latter standard solutions of sodic or potassic 
hydroxide. 

Oxidation and reduction are employed to determine the 
amount of oxidizable bodies by means of oxidizing agents in 
standard solutions, such as potassic permanganate, potassic 
bichromate, etc., or by reduction, as in the case of the alkaline 
cupric tartrate, by sugar, etc. 

Volumetric determination by precipitation depends upon the 
known quantity of the standard solution requisiteto effect com- 
plete precipitation, or the beginning precipitation of a solution 
of unknown strength. While by means of chemical computa- 
tion the relation of the test to the substance to be tested can 
be determined, tables giving the proportionate amount of cer- 
tain bodies corresponding to a fixed measure of the test facili- 
tate this very much. (See volumetric tests.) 

The qualitative chemical analysis of solid substances in a 
dry way depends primarily on their behavior when exposed to 
heat, either alone or with reducing agents. A substance heated 
alone, in a narrow open tube without resulting change, shows 
the absence of organic matter, and of salts containing water of 
crystallization or volatile compounds. If it chars or blackens 
without volatilizing, emitting empyreumatic odors, compounds 



ANALYSIS. 2 1 

of carbon are present; if it fuses, liberating aqueous vapors, 
which condense, salts with water of crystallization or decom- 
posable hydrates are indicated, and the reaction of the residue 
should be determined. Change of color to yellow, disappearing 
on cooling, would indicate zinc oxides ; transitory brown with 
sublimation of mercury, mercuric oxide ; sublimation with 
yellow color, mercuric iodide ; brown would indicate the 
oxides of lead and bismuth, also chromates ; liberation of 
gases or fumes, if violet, point to iodine and its compounds ; 
if brownish-red and bromine odor, to bromine and its com- 
pounds;, sulphates give rise to sulphur di-oxide; nitrates to 
nitric peroxide, easily recognizable by color and odor. Cyan- 
ogen by its odor indicates cyanides ; ammoniacal odors, am- 
monium and cyanogen compounds also nitrogenized organic 
bodies, the latter accompanied by charring and escape of 
cyanogen and empyreuma with ammonia. Sublimation takes 
place from volatile substances, such as sulphur or ammonium 
salts, compounds of mercury, arsenic, antimony, also from some 
organic acids (benzoic, succinic, salicylic, etc.). If on heating 
with soda lime ammonia vapors develop, ammonium salts or 
nitrogenous compounds are present. 

The behavior of substances with dry sodic carbonate on 
charcoal, in the heat of the blow-pipe flame, indicates by fusion 
and absorption, alkalies or their salts ; an infusible white residue, 
so formed, either directly or after fusion in water of crystalli- 
zation, shows the presence of compounds of calcium, barium, 
strontium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc or tin. 

Compounds of tin, silver and copper are reduced to the me- 
tallic state, and give malleable shining scales without formation 
of peripheral incrustation on the charcoal, as do also the com- 
pounds of iron, manganese, cobalt and nickel, but these yield, 
instead of scales, infusible gray powders, which can be recog- 
nized by being cut from the charcoal and levigated in the agate 
mortar. 

Incrustations are formed in the reduction of antimony com- 
pounds with a brittle metallic globule. Bismuth, brown-yellow 
with brittle metallic globule ; lead, yellow with malleable 
globule; zinc, white incrustation, non-volatile in oxidizing 
flame; cadmium, brown-red incrustation, no reduction; arsenic 



22 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

compounds evolve smell of garlic ; borax and alum swell up, 
losing their water of crystallization ; sulphur compounds yield 
alkaline sulphides, which, if moistened on a clean silver surface, 
give a black stain, and with acids develop hydrogen sulphide.; 
nitrates, chlorates, iodates and bromates deflagrate. 

Flame Tests. — If a substance is heated on a looped wire of 
platinum, in the upper reducing portion of a non-luminous 
flame, a violet color indicates potassic salts, best observed 
through blue glass, and seen through the spectroscope as a 
violet and red bar ; a yellow color indicates sodic salts, seen 
through the spectroscope as a yellow bar. Moistened with 
HC1 a purplish-red flame indicates strontium ; carmine-red, 
lithium; yellowish-red, calcium; green, copper or barium, 
more distinct with Cu than Ba. 

When first dried by heat, and then moistened with H 2 S0 4 , a 
green color indicates phosphoric or boric acid, which is tran- 
sient if sodic compounds are present ; blue color is imparted 
by arsenic, antimony and lead. 

The glass beads formed, if a trace of the substance to be ex- 
amined is fused with borax on the looped end of a platinum 
wire, offer characteristic tests. In the outer blow-pipe flame a 
blue glass indicates cobalt ; amethyst-red manganese ; green, 
chromium or copper, the former on cooling is yellow, the latter 
blue ; brown, nickel or iron, the latter on cooling is often yellow ; 
yellow, uranium or lead ; colorless glasses are formed by mo- 
lybdic acid, tin, antimony, bismuth and the alkaline earths, the 
latter turning opaque on cooling. Some of the glasses pro- 
duced in the inner blow-pipe differ from these in color. 

REACTIONS AND REAGENTS. 

Phenomena accompanying and characteristic of the combi- 
nations and decomposition of bodies are termed reactions, and 
the known substance employed to develop such characteristic 
phenomena, in order to determine the nature or chemical com- 
position of unknown substances, are termed in accordance there- 
with, reagents. These latter can be subdivided into general and 
special reagents. The former of these may be described as such 
substances that will serve to indicate a class or group of other 
bodies affected in a similar manner by them, whereas special 



TESTS OR REAGENTS. 23 

reagents would be those characteristic of one substance only. 
That some of the general reagents may be special, when sup- 
plemented by other general reagents, is often observed. A 
characteristic reagent is one that affects another body in such 
a manner as to leave no doubt as to the identity of the latter, 
while delicate reagents are those which act on the other if pres- 
ent in very minute quantities. While many reagents may be 
said to be characteristic they are delicate as well. That 
reagents should be chemically pure to avoid reactions due to 
contaminations is clearly obvious. The quantities of the re- 
agent to be employed is a matter that must be gauged from 
the understanding of the reaction taking place. Thus, if a 
test is to be made with potassic-iodide for mercuric-chloride 
the former must be added in very small quantities, to avoid 
a solution taking place of the mercuric iodide in an excess of 
the reagent. On describing the various reagents and test solu- 
tions commonly in use and coming within the sphere of this 
work they are given as to their strength, the composition of 
special tests, as well as the methods of preparing them, and 
under the volumetric tests their preparation and rules apply- 
ing thereto will be especially mentioned. 

TESTS OR REAGENTS. 

While a full list of the tests employed in the different manip- 
ulations enumerated in this work will be subjoined, alphabeti- 
cally arranged, a limited number of them will answer for 
ordinary office experimentation as well as class demonstration. 

Acid, acetic : specific gravity 1 .048. 

Acid, hydrochloric : specific gravity 1.16, containing 32.2 per 
cent, absolute acid. 

Acid, nitric : specific gravity 1. 42, containing 69.4 per cent, 
absolute acid. 

Acid, oxalic : 1 in 10. 

Acid, picric : saturated aqueous solution. 

Acid, sulphuric : specific gravity 1.84, containing 97 per cent, 
absolute acid. 

Acid, sidphar mis : specific gravity 1.046, saturated aqueous 
solution at 15 C. containing 36 volumes, or about 9.5 by 
weight of the gas. 



24 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Acid, tannic : I in a mixture of 18 water and 2 alcohol. 

Acid, tartaric : I in 5. 

Albumin: the white of one egg triturated with 100 c. c. 
water and filtered through cotton. 

Alcohol ' : specific gravity 0.820, containing by volume 94 per 
cent., by weight 91 per cent, absolute alcohol. 

Alcohol, absolute: specific gravity 0.795. 

Aluminium, metallic : in wire or ribbons. 

Ammonia water : specific gravity 0.959, containing 10 per 
cent, by weight of the gas. 

Amnionic carbonate : 1, in mixture of water 4, and ammonia 
water 1. 

Amnionic chloride : I in 10. 

Ammonic molybdate : I in 10 to which 10HNO3 are added. 

Amnionic oxalate : 1 in 20. 

Amnionic phosphate : 1 in 15. 

Amnionic sulphydrate : saturation of stronger ammonia water 
with H 2 S, and adding subsequently 2 ammonia water. 

Aniline sulphate : 5 drops aniline in 25 c. c. diluted H 2 S0 4 . 

Argentic nitrate : 1 in 20. 

Argentic nitrate ammoniated : prepared by adding in drops 
ammonia water to test solution of argentic nitrate until pre- 
cipitate is redissolved. 

Auric chloride : 1 in 20. 

Baric chloride : 1 in 10. 

Baric hydrate: saturated solution (containing about 5 per 
cent.). 

Baric nitrate : 1 in 20. 

Benzin (Petroleum ether): specific gravity O.670-O.67 5, boil- 
ing at 50-60 C. 

Borax: in powder. 

Bromine water : a saturated solution. 

Calcic chloride : 1 (cryst.) in 10. 

Calcic hydrate (lime water) : saturated solution. 

Carbon bisulphide : specific gravity 1.272. 

Chlorine ivater : saturated, containing about 0.4 per cent, by 
weight. To be freshly prepared. 

C hloroform : specific gravity 1 .480. 

Copper, metallic : in wire and foil. 



TESTS OR REAGENTS. 25 

Cupric sulphate : I in 10. 

Cupric sulphate, ammoniated : prepared by adding drop by- 
drop to the test solution of cupric sulphate sufficient ammonia 
water to redissolve precipitate. 

Ether : specific gravity 0.750. 

Ferric chloride : 1 in 10. 

Ferrous sulphate : 1 part, obtained by precipitation with alco- 
hol, dissolved in 10 parts H 2 0. 

Ferrous sulphide : in granular form. 

Gelatin : 1 part isinglass, in 50 parts water ; dissolved and 
filtered through cotton. 

Glycerin: specific gravity 1.26. 

Gold: metallic, in leaf. 

Hydrogen, nascent : applicable in gas form as a test for ar- 
senic, by forming hydrogen arsenide which can be reduced 
either by heat, or by reducing with it argentic nitrate. See 
Marsh and Fleitmann's tests, under Arsenic. 

Hydrogen sulphide : Obtained by the action of H 2 S0 4 or HC1 
on ferrous sulphide. For precipitation of sulphides from metals 
the ordinary glass bulb may be employed with its arm im- 
mersed in the liquid to be tested. 

Hydrogen sulphide water: a saturated solution of H 2 S in 
water at 15 C. to be freshly prepared. 

Indigo solution : 1 indigo to 6 fuming sulphuric acid; after 
subsiding, 20 times its volume of water is added and filtered. 

Iodine water : saturated solution in water. 

Iodine tincture : iodine 8, alcohol to make 100. 

Iodinized Potassic iodide : solution of I iodine, and 3 potassic 
iodide in 60 water. 

Magnesium : metallic, in wire or ribbon. 

Magnesium mixture: (Ammoniated Magnesium sulphate), 
II magnesic chloride or sulphate,- and 14 ammonic chloride in 
70 stronger ammonia (sp. gr. 0.900) and 130 water. 

Magnesic sulphate : 1 in 10. 

Mercuric chloride : 1 in 20. 

Mercuroiis chloride : in substance. 

Milloiis reagent: 1 Hg. and 2 HN0 3 (sp. gr. 1.4) until former 
is completely dissolved, to be diluted with 2H 2 and decanted 
after 3-4 hours. 

3 



26 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Phenolphtalein : I in ioo of a mixture of 25 alcohol and 75 
water. 

Platinic chloride : 1 in 20. 

Plumbic acetate : I in 10. 

Plumbic acetate, basic: liquor plumbi subacetatis U. S. P. 

Plumbic nitrate : 1 in 10. 

Pot as sic acetate : 1 in 5. 

Potassic bichromate : 1 in 10. 

Potassic chromate, neutral: 1 in 10. 

Potassic cyanide : in substance. 

Potassic ferricyanide : 1 in 10, solution to be freshly made. 

Potassic ferrocyanide : 1 in 10. 

Potassic hydrate: 1 in 20, specific gravity 1.036. 

Potassic iodide: 1 in 20. 

Potassio-mercuric-iodide : 1.354 HgCl and 4.98 KI in 100 
water. 

Pot as sio-mer curie iodide with potassic hydrate : (Nessler's test, 
see Water). 

Potassic nitrate : in substance. 

Potassic nitrite : fused. 

Potassic permanganate : 1 in 1 000. 

Potassic sidphocyanide : 1 in 20. 

Soda lime : Quicklime slacked with a solution of NaHO, so 
that about 2 of quicklime are mixed with 1 NaHO. The mix- 
ture is heated to redness, powdered and preserved. 

Soap test, Clarke's : see Water. 

So die acetate : 1 in 5. 

Sodic bicarbonate : saturated. 

Sodic bitartrate : saturated. 

Sodic hydrate: 1 in 20, specific gravity 1.059. 

Sodic hypochlorite : liquor sodae chloratse, U. S. P. 

Sodic hyposulphite : 1 in 10. 

Sodic molybdate : Frohdes test I in 100 H 2 S0 4 . 

Sodic phosphate : 1 in 10. 

Sodic sidphate : saturated. 

Starch mucilage : freshly prepared. 1 powdered starch mixed 
with 100 water and heated to boiling point and when subsided, 
decanted. 

Zinc : metallic, in sticks or fragments or slips. 



TEST PAPERS ALKALIMETRY. 2J 



TEST PAPERS. 



Blue litmus paper is prepared by drawing unsized white 
paper through the neutral litmus solution (litmus washed first 
with warm alcohol, and the residue treated with water). 

Red litmus paper, draw white unsized paper through the neu- 
tral litmus solution previously turned slightly red with a trace 
of H 2 S0 4 . 

Turmeric paper, white unsized paper drawn through a turmeric 
solution (turmeric I in a mixture of alcohol 4 and water 3, al- 
lowed to macerate for a few days and decanted). 

Plumbic acetate paper for the detection of HgS white unsized 
paper drawn through a solution of plumbic acetate. 

Starch paper, white unsized paper drawn through starch mu- 
cilage. 

VOLUMETRIC TESTS. 

The amount of the substances to be tested is generally ex- 
pressed by weight while the tests are always spoken of by 
measure. 

The normal solutions as a rule, contain for univalent sub- 
stances the weight in grams corresponding to their mole- 
cular weight in one litre. For bivalent substances, they contain 
one-half their molecular weights expressed in grams in each 
litre. For trivalent substances one-third, etc. 

Decinormal or centinormal solutions represent one-tenth or 
one hundredth of these values, and the amount of the solution 
can in this way indicate at once the percentage strength of the 
substance to be examined, but as such are limited in their ap- 
plication principally to special substances, other solutions are 
sometimes made empyrically according to their oxidizing 
power, etc. 

ALKALIMETRY. 

Standard solutions of oxalic acid 63 in 1000 at 15 C. ; 100 
cubic centimetres thereof correspond exactly to 
5.23 grams ammonic carbonate. 
17.00 " ammonia water, sp. gr., 0.959. 

6.07 " ammonia water,, stronger, sp, gr., 0.900. 



28 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

54.68 grams solution lead acetate basic, sp. gr., 1.228. 

112.00 " solution potassic hydrate, sp. gr., 1.036. 

80.00 " solution sodic hydrate, sp. gr., 1.059. 
9.80 " potassic acetate. 

10.01 " potassic bicarbonate. 
18.80 " potassic bitartrate. 

6.91 " potassic carbonate, pure. 

10.80 " potassic citrate. 

14.10 " potassic and sodic tartrate. 

5.61 " potassic hydrate. 

3.14 " potassic permanganate. 

11.76 " potassic tartrate. 

13.60 " sodic acetate. 

8.40 " sodic bicarbonate. 

19.10 " sodic borate. 

14.30 " sodic carbonate. 

4.00 " sodic hydrate. 

ACIDIMETRY. 

Standard solution of potassic hydrate containing 56 KHO in 
1000. If properly prepared 100 cubic centimetres correspond 
to 

16.66 grams acetic acid, sp. gr., 1.048. 
100.00 " acetic acid, dilute, sp. gr., 1.0083. 

6.00 " acetic acid glacial, sp. gr. 1.058. 

7.00 " citric acid. 

81.00 " hydrobromic acid dilute, sp. gr., 1.077. 

11.41 hydrochloric acid, sp. gr., 1.16. 

36.40 " hydrochloric acid dilute, sp. gr., 1. 049. 

12.00 " lactic acid, sp. gr., 1.2 12. 

9.08 " nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.42. 

63.45 nitric acid dilute, sp. gr., 1.059. 

6.30 " oxalic acid. 

4.90 " sulphuric acid, sp. gr., 1.84. 

49.OO " sulphuric acid, dilute, sp.gr., 1. 067. 

7.50 " tartaric acid. 

Amongst the standard solutions for volumetric analysis by 
reduction, the most important for the physician is 



VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS BY PRECIPITATION. 



2 9 



Fehling's standard solution of alkaline cupric tartrate. 

17.32 grams pure crystallized cupric sulphate are dissolved 
in 100 c.c. water, and 85 grams pure crystallized potassic 
and sodic tartrate are dissolved in 300 c.c. of a 10 per cent so- 
lution sodic hydrate. Then the two are gradually mixed and 
brought with water to 500 c.c. Of this solution : 

10 c.c. correspond to 0.05 grams grape sugar. 

10 " " " O.067 " milk sugar. 

10 " " " 0.0475 " cane sugar. 

For further information on this test see Urinary Analysis. 



VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS BY PRECIPITATION. 

As before stated, this depends upon the power of a quantita- 
tively known precipitant to completely precipitate a fixed quan- 
tity of another substance, or to form an insoluble compound of 
the two in such a manner as to determine the unknown quan- 
tity of the substance to be tested, or as in the case of the cyan- 
ides until precipitation begins. The most important and 
generally employed volumetric solution for this purpose is the 
standard solution of argentic nitrate 16.97 in 1000 (decinormal) 
employed for the estimation of most chlorides, iodides, bro- 
mides, cyanides, also their acids. 
Each 1 c.c. corresponds to 0.00978 grams ammonic bromide. 



I ' 




" 0.00534 


« 


ammonic chloride. 


I ' 




" 0.0155 


u 


ammonic iodide. 


I ' 




' " 0.01276 


(( 


hydriodic acid. 


I ' 




1 " 0.00808 


« 


hydrobromic acid. 


I ' 




' " 0.00364 


u 


hydrochloric acid. 


I ' 




' " 0.0054 


a 


hydrocyanic acid. 


I ' 




1 " 0. 01 198 


<< 


potassic bromide. 


I ' 




1 " 0.00744 


<< 


potassic chloride. 


I ' 




1 " 0.0130 


« 


potassic cyanide. 


I ' 




' " 0.01656 


u 


potassic iodide. 


I ' 




1 " 0.01028 


(i 


sodic bromide. 


I ' 




' " 0.00584 


« 


sodic chloride. 


I ' 




1 " 0.01028 


<< 


sodic iodide. 


For operating with the neutral chlorides, iodides, bromides, 


it is best to add a few drops of potassium 


1 chromate to serve as 


indicator 


when tl 


le precipitation is complete, whereas in the es- 



30 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

timation of hydrocyanic acid or cyanides, their solutions should 
be made slightly alkaline by adding a few drops of sodic or 
potassic hydrate and a few drops of sodic chloride. The com- 
pletion of the test in the latter case is indicated when a perma- 
nent cloudiness forms, as that would show the complete 
formation of the double cyanide of potassium and silver. 

Indicators are such reagents that will aid in observing, 
when the reaction by a volumetric test is completed. Thus 
litmus solutions will answer best for alkalimetry or acidimetry. 

The extinction of the blue color of Fehling's test will serve 
in Saccharimetry, but this can be more accurately determined 
if a few drops of the test when about extinguished be placed 
on a porcelain slab or dish, acidulated with a little HC1 and 
then tested with potassic ferrocyanide, which, if copper is pres- 
ent, will produce a brown color; this should be frequently re- 
peated towards the end of the process until complete reduction 
is insured. The indicators employed in precipitation have 
been mentioned under that head. 

STOICHIOMETRY. 

From aroixeiov (element). 

Analytical reactions and observations would be of little value 
in regard to quantitative composition of bodies without the abil- 
ity to compute their value with relative weights. It is for this 
purpose that the atomic weights have been ascertained (vide 
Table of Elements). A molecule being a group of atoms, the 
sum of the atomic weights would form a molecular weight. As 
symbols express atoms, and as molecules are expressed by the 
symbols of their component atoms, and chemical formulae and 
equations are the relative positions of the molecules in reactions, 
and, as the symbols of atoms and the sums thereof represent 
values by weights, formulae and equations can be expressed in 
figures representing weights ; the changes noted thus by equa- 
tions are quantitative as well as qualitative. Thus : 



H 2 S0 4 


HNO3 


Urea, CON. 2 H 4 
C = 12 C = 12 


H = I 2H= 2 


H = 1 H= 1 


= i6 0=i6 


S = 32 S = 32 


N=i4 N=i4 


N = i4 2N = 28 


= i6 40 = 64 


= i6 30 = 48 


H= 1 4H= 4 



Mol. wt. H 2 S0 4 , 98 Mol. wt. HNO3, 63 Mol. wt. of urea, 60 



Urea. 


Sodic hypochlorite. 


Carbon 
dioxide. 


CON 2 H 4 


+ 3NaC10 = 


co 2 



STOICHIOMETRY. 3 1 

If we take the equation for the decomposition of urea by 
sodic hypochlorite, we will find : 

Water. Nitrogen. Sodic 

chloride. 

+ 2H 2 -4- 2N + 3NaCl 

( I2+i 6-l 2 8+4)+(35-5+ 16+23)3= (i2+ 3 2) + (2+i6) 2 +(i4) 2 +(35-5+23)3 
60 223.5 44 3 6 28 175.5 

283.5 = 283.5 

This shows that, if an equation is to be correct, the sum of 
the molecular weights on both sides must be equal ; while the 
above equation can also be read as following: 

60 parts of urea with 223.5 parts sodic hypochlorite yield 44 
parts of carbon dioxide, 36 parts water, 28 parts nitrogen, and 
175.5 parts sodic chloride; all parts represented by the same 
weight-unit. 

The computation of the percentage weight contained in any 
substance is readily effected. As the molecular weight of a 
body relates to 100, the molecular weight of the desired group 
relates to the percentage thereof. Thus : 

46.6 

Again, it will be seen that 100 grams urea contain 46,666 
grams of nitrogen. 

Or, if on the contrary we have 100 grams of nitrogen from 
the decomposition of a quantity of urea, the equation would be 

N Urea N 

28 : 60 = 100 : x= — = 214.28s grams urea. 

28 * ° s 

t. e. t if a specimen of urine on decomposition yielded too grams 
of nitrogen, the amount of urea contained therein would be 
214.285 grams. 

To determine how much sodic hypochlorite is about con- 
tained in 100 c.c. of a certain Labarraque's solution, the equation 
would be as follows : 



Jrea 


: 100 


= 


Nitrogen 


: x 


60 


: 100 


= 


28 


IOO.28 
60 



Urea. 


Sodic hypochlorite. 




Urea. 


Sodic hypochlorite, 


60 : 


: 233.5 

233-5 


— 


I 

3-89 


: x 



90 
i. e., one gram urea decomposes 3.89 grams sodic hypochlorite. 



32 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

If the sodic hypochlorite in 100 c.c. Labarraque's solution 
is decomposed by 2.5 grams urea, the amount of sodic hypo- 
chlorite in that solution would be (irrespective of errors 
3.89 X 2.5 = 9.725 grams. Therefore, to determine how much 
of such a solution to employ, to decompose the urea in 10 c.c. 
urine containing about 1.25 per cent, of urea, the equation would 
be (urea in 10. ex.): 

1 : 3.89 = 0.125 : x = 3-89X0.125 = 0.4.86 grams, 
thus: 

c 48.6 

9.7 : 100 = 0.4 6 : x = - — — 5 c.c. 

97 
of the solution necessary to decompose urea in the 10 c.c. of urine containing 

1.25 per cent. urea. (The amounts here are taken arbitrarily). 

To compute volume from weight it is necessary to know the 

weight of a certain measure of the body to be so computed. Say 

that if one litre of nitrogen weighs 1.2565 grams, then 1 c.c. 

would weigh 0.0012565. If, therefore, 60 urea yield 28 nitro- 

28 
gen, 1 urea will yield — == 0.466 grams nitrogen. 

If N N 

0.0012565 : 1 c.c. = 0.466 : x 
0.466 

5^^565 = 368 - 9 C ' C - 

i. e. t the nitrogen developed from one gram urea would measure 
368.9 c.c. 

If, therefore, 368.9 c.c. nitrogen will correspond to I gram 
urea, each cubic centimetre nitrogen developed will represent 

' = 0.027 grams urea. i. e.. each cubic centimetre nitro- 
368.9 / *> 

gen developed from urea represents 2.7 milligrams of urea. 

Correction for Barometric Pressure. — As gaseous vol- 
umes are inversely and their density in direct ratio with the 
pressure they are subjected to, it will be seen that gases cannot 
be accurately measured unless correction is made for the baro- 
metric pressure. As stated elsewhere, normal pressure is 
accepted as 760 millimetres of mercury at O C, a gaseous 
volume is increased if the barometer is below, and diminished if 
above, the normal. 

Thus, a volume of nitrogen measuring 50 c.c, at 725 m.m. : 



SYLLABUS FOR PART I. 33 

Normal pressure. Diminished pressure. Measured gas. 

760 : 725 = 50 : x 

725 X 50 = -^ — 5_ = 47.9 c.c. volume of X under normal pressure. 
760 

Measurement of Gases. — Correction for Temperature. — 
The volumes of gases are not alone influenced by barometric 
pressure, but also by expansion or contraction due to temper- 
ature, contracting or expanding to the same amount for the 
same increase or decrease of temperature. This amount, 
called its coefficient, is 273 of the volume of gas at 0° for every 
degree centigrade. Expressed in decimal fractions, it is equal 
to 0.003665, and at i° C. it would, therefore, be 1.003665, at 
2° C. 1 + (0.003665 X 2) = 1.00733. 

With this coefficient duly adjusted for degrees, the volume 
*s divided if measured above 0° C, or multiplied if measured 
below. 

Thus, if 50 c.c. of nitrogen were measured at 10° C, then 
the coefficient would be (1 -f(ioX 0.003665) = I =03665. 



50 



1-03365 



= 48.37 c.c., corrected volume for 0° c. 



SYLLABUS FOR PART I. 

(1.) Weigh solids, and measure liquids and gaseous bodies. 

(2.) Compare the temperature of different bodies with ther- 
mometers of different scales. 

(3.) Note barometric pressure. 

(4.) Make observations with spectroscope of sunlight, sodium 
flame, potassium flame, blood-spectra. 

(5.) Make observations with polariscope of neutral and 
active bodies, determine them analytically by this instrument. 

(6.) Determine specific gravity of liquids by specific-gravity 
bottle and hydrometer; also, of a solid heavier than water; and 
one lighter than water ; also, of a body soluble or incompatible 
with water, and of a body in powder form. 

(7.) Make a simple and a chemical solution, also a precipi- 
tate from either. Crystallize a salt from a solution. Make a 
plain and plaited filter. Separate precipitates by decantation 
and filtration. 

(8.) Distil a liquid, and sublime a solid. Also, evaporate a 
solution, and incinerate the residue. 



34 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

(9.) Make qualitative analysis of a solution of KI, and a quan- 
titative analysis of simple bodies by volumetric process (NaCl 
by AgN0 8 ). 

(10.) Make hydrogen by the zinc and aluminium process. 
Oxygen from HgO ; also make hydrogen sulphide and chlor- 
ine by the respective processes. 

(11.) Determine amount of oxygen obtainable from a certain 
amount of HgO. Convert the weight thereof into volume. 
Compute the correction of this amount for expansion at 18 C. 
temperature. Compute correction for this amount for baro- 
metric pressure at 720 m.m. 



PART II. 

CHEMISTRY OF POISONS. 

One of the provinces of chemical science in its application to 
medicine is the detection of poisonous substances, either wil- 
fully or accidentally introduced into the human system with 
deleterious or fatal effect. A poisonous substance or poison 
is one of indefinite meaning, unless it applies to any substance 
which in small quantities works injury to organized beings. 
Poisons in small doses may, however, not alone exert no dele- 
terious or injurious effect, but in medicinal doses may exercise a 
remedial influence on the body. If this influence, however, be 
much increased beyond that limit, the poisonous effect makes 
itself manifest, or, if it be applied to an organism particularly 
sensitive, as in a child or very weak person, a medicinal dose 
may become a poisonous one. A poison could, therefore, be 
declared only such a substance that is known in established 
quantities and form to affect injuriously or fatally the normal 
functions of the organism. Thus, pieces of glass will operate 
to the destruction of the organism by destroying the continuity 
of the organs it comes in contact with, although in fine powder 
it may pass through the body without doing harm. Acids or 
alkalies in their concentrated form, may destroy the organs of 
digestion, though, in their diluted form, they may safely be 



ANTIMONY. 35 

consumed ; certain salts and their solutions act directly in the 
same manner, and secondarily by intoxicating the nerve-centres 
after absorption, as is done by neurotics, amongst which alka- 
loids and some volatile principles must be classed. 

The part of the medical chemist is to determine the pres- 
ence and nature of a poisonous substance, its effect, if 
mechanical, the condition in which present, or the chemical 
change that it may have undergone in the body, also the quan- 
tity obtainable from the remains of the body, if it has worked 
fatally, or from the secretions, excretions, dejecta or ejecta, to 
establish crime, accident, or to confirm diagnosis in chronic 
intoxication from such agents. The technical manner and le- 
gal requisites necessary in such cases are subjects not within 
the scope of this work, but can be found in all handbooks on 
toxicology and forensic medicine; suffice it, to describe here 
the chemical procedure and principles involved. That this is 
principally based upon a thorough understanding of analytical 
chemistry and the chemical relations of the toxic agents under 
certain conditions, need scarcely be mentioned. Chemically, 
poisons are divided into inorganic and organic, according to 
their origin. A further subdivision might lead us to consider 
them as metallic, mineral, acids, alkalies, vegetable and animal 
products and derivatives. Their separation from the body, 
organs, suspending liquids, or solvents, is often a matter of diffi- 
culty, but can be satisfactorily accomplished by various chemi- 
cal as well as physical means, especially by well devised and 
properly operated dialyzers; while there will be comparatively 
little trouble in establishing their identity, their quantity, which 
alone characterizes them as toxic agents in a legal sense, can 
be established only by tedious processes, and by means of va- 
rious and often ingenious methods. 

The poisonous agents considered hereafter form a limited part 
of the many known, but are the principal ones met with ordi- 
narily. 

ANTIMONY. 

Stibium, Sb Hi = 122, specific gravity 6.715. 

A bluish-gray solid substance of metallic lustre, crystalliz- 
able, with fracture of crystalline appearance, brittle and pulver- 



$6 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

izable, tasteless, odorless ; melts at 450 C, and volatilizes at red 
heat. It is often used as alloy with other metals to impart 
hardness to them. 

It resembles in its chemical character arsenic very much, 
without oxidizing as readily as the former, though if sufficiently 
heated with access of oxygen it forms a crystalline trioxide 
Sb 2 3 . Like arsenic it unites with H to form hydrogen-anti- 
monide or stibamine SbH 3 . The formation of SbH 3 under the 
conditions usually employed for detecting arsenic in Marsh's 
test, makes it of importance in comparison to AsH 3 . Like this 
it decomposes a solution of argentic nitrate ; but the precipi- 
tate is silver antimonide and not metallic silver, as in the case 
of arsine. If the hydrogen in Marsh's test is developed from 
zinc or aluminium, with a solution of potassic hydrate in- 
stead of acids, hydrogen antimonide is not formed. If by the 
acid process, however, an antimonial stain is produced from the 
Marsh test, this is insoluble in sodium hypochlorite, in which 
the arsenic stain is soluble. Besides, the stain, if dissolved in 
HN0 3 , and allowed to dry or evaporate, turns brick-red on the 
addition of argentic nitrate solution, if arsenical, but is not col- 
ored if antimonial. 

Although three oxides of antimony are known, only the 
trioxide is used in medicine, antimony oxide (Sb 2 3 ). The so- 
called James powder, pulvis antimonialis (Br.), is a mixture of 
antimony trioxide and tricalcic phosphate. 

If 3 parts antimony trioxide are boiled with 4 parts of 
hydro-potassic tartrate for one hour, filtered and allowed to 
crystallize, Potassio-antimony tartrate 2(K(SbO)C 4 H 4 6 )H 2 
= m.w. 664, Tartar emetic is produced. The crystals of this 
are right rhombic octahedra. 

Its solutions are acid in reaction, have a metallic, nauseating 
taste, are dextrogyrous = -f- 156,2° and precipitable by alco- 
hol. Antimony, like arsenic, forms acids, which, however, are 
of little practical interest. 

With chlorine antimony forms two chlorides and several 
oxychlorides ; of the former the antimony trichloride SbCl 3 is 
known in medicine as butter of antimony, Liquor Antimonii 
chloridi, specific gravity 1.47, from which by addition of water, 
Algaroth is precipitated and used in the manufacture of Tartar 



ARSENIC. 37 

emetic. Antimony pentachloride SbCl 5 is comparatively of 
little interest to medicine. Of the combinations with sulphur 
the antimony trisulphide SbS 3 and the antimony pentasulphide 
SbS g are best known. The former occurs in nature as black 
antimony, and is precipitated from tartar emetic by an excess of 
hydrogen sulphide as an orange red precipitate turning brown. 
If this be boiled with potassic or sodic hydrate and allowed to 
cool, a complex body separates known in medicine as Kermes 
mineral, which, if treated with H 2 S0 4 , yields a mixture of tri- 
sulphide and pentasulphide known as golden sulphuret of anti- 
mony. 

Toxicology of Antimony. — The principal preparation to be 
considered under this head is Tartar emetic, which is poisonous 
in doses of 3 grains and upwards, though larger doses seem 
to be comparatively less serious than smaller ones, as they are> 
as a rule, speedily ejected. If given in small doses for some 
time it produces chronic poisoning, the subject thereof dying 
of exhaustion. As it is eliminated by the kidneys, the exami- 
nation of urine in such cases should furnish a clue to diagnosis. 
Chemical antidotes are warm water to produce emesis, followed 
by tannin or substances containing it, to render insoluble com- 
pounds. 

Analytical Characters. — Hydrogen antimonide by Marsh's 
test from acids ; orange red precipitate from an acid solution by 
hydrogen sulphide, soluble in hot HC1. Deposit of bluish 
metallic film on bright copper foil from solutions acidulated 
with HC1; if the copper strips so treated are heated to redness 
with access of air, a white sublimate results. To determine 
quantitatively SbS 3 should be converted into Sb 2 4 , antimony 
orthoantimonate, of which 100 parts correspond to 1 10.52 
Sb 2 S 3 . 

ARSENIC. 

As. iiiandv__y^ specific gravity, 5.75. 

A brittle, steel-gray solid substance of metallic lustre. It 
volatilizes without fusion. Its vapor has a garlicky odor. It 
readily oxidizes if heated in the air, accompanied by its char- 
acteristic odor. It forms compounds with oxygen, hydrogen, 
chlorine, bromine, iodine and most of the metals. It is used 



38 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

in the arts, pyrotechnics, in making shot, fly poison, and occurs 
as a contaminant of various medicinal substances, especially 
bismuth. Arsenic forms compounds with hydrogen, the prin- 
cipal one of which is known as hydrogen arsenide, or arsine 
AsH 3 , a poisonous gas which is formed directly by the action 
of nascent hydrogen on an arsenical compound. Upon this 
depends one of the principal and most delicate tests for arsenic. 
It burns with a green flame, giving rise to vapors of arsenic 
trioxide ; but if the flame is cooled by the introduction of a 
cold substance, elementary arsenic is deposited thereon. If in- 
troduced into solution of argentic nitrate it decomposes it into 
metallic silver and leaves arsenic trioxide As 2 3 and the pentox- 
ide As 2 5 . The former is most generally known as white 
arsenic, or commonly arsenic. It may be either crystalline or 
vitreous, but when sublimed it forms characteristic brilliant 
octahedral crystals. It is of slightly sweetish, afterwards acrid 
metallic taste ; it is odorless and, in solution with water, of slight 
acid reaction. Its degree of solubility in water has been given 
variously according as to whether crystalline or vitreous. It 
is oxidized by HN0 3 , arsenic pentoxide being formed. It is 
reduced by sodic carbonate with potassic cyanide by heat. Its 
solution with HO is reduced by metallic copper, upon which 
a gray film is deposited ; upon this reaction depends the test 
known as Reinsch's. 

There are four acids of arsenic, of which the following only 
are of interest : Arsenious acid, H 3 As0 3 ; arsenic acid, H 3 As0 4 . 

Of the three sulphides, arsenic disulphide, As 2 S 2 , arsenic tri- 
sulphide, As 2 S 3 , and arsenic pentasulphide, As 2 S 5 , the trisul- 
phide is the one of principal importance as obtained by pre- 
cipitation from arsenical solutions by H 2 S. As such it is of a 
bright yellow color, insoluble in HC1, but soluble in alkaline 
hydroxides, especially NH 4 HO; also in solutions of alkaline 
carbonates and sulphides. It is of importance, as in cases of 
poisoning by arsenic the trioxide may be changed into a tri- 
sulphide by the H 2 S, liberated by the decomposition of the tis- 
sues. Arsenic trichloride, AsCl 3 ; arsenic tribromide, AsBr 3 ; 
arsenic triiodide, Asl 3 . The latter two are medicinal agents, 
the iodide with Hgl 2 in solution forming Donovan's solution 
(each i in 100 H 2 0). 



ARSENIC. 39 

Of the salts of arsenious acid are to be mentioned, the so- 
called Scheele's green, a mixture of cupric arsenite and hy- 
drate, and the Schweinfurt or Paris green, a mixture of cupric 
arsenite and acetate, very poisonous substances, which, through 
their common use as insecticides, are apt to be frequently the 
cause of serious poisoning cases. The potassium arsenite as 
an ingredient of Fowler's solution, and sodium arsenate as the 
base of liquor sodii arsenatis (iNa 2 HAs0 4 - iooH 2 0), are also 
frequently giving rise to poisonous uses or accidents. 

Toxicology. — The preparations of arsenic are amongst the 
most common used with homi- or suicidal effect, and give often 
rise also to accidental intoxication. Thus the trioxide seems 
to be the favorite poison with both poisoners and suicides, and 
the Paris green, the cupric arsenite pigments in confections 
and otherwise, are those which give most often rise to acci- 
dental poisoning, while overdoses of medicinal arsenical prepa- 
rations both by internal use or by absorption from the cutaneous 
surfaces are frequently heard from, and poisoning by arsenical 
wall-paper and clothing are by no means rare. When directly 
taken into the stomach as arsenic trioxide, it will produce a 
certain amount of inflammation, proportionate with the condi- 
tion of the stomach and the time it has been in contact there- 
with. The principal antidote after the employment of emetics, 
such as zinc- or cupric-sulphate, mustard and hot water, or the 
use of the stomach pump, is the Ferric hydrate freely admin- 
istered as a magma. To make it, as should always be done, 
fresh at the time, the ferric sulphate is precipitated with ammo- 
nium hvdrate. As the ferric chloride under such circum- 
stances is probably nearer at hand, it may readily be prepared 
therefrom as per following reaction : 

Fe 2 Cl 6 + 6NH.HO = Fe 2 H 6 6 + 6NH.C1, 

which, after being strained and deprived of an excess of am- 
monia as well as ammonic chloride, is given in tablespoon 
doses at freqent intervals, changing the arsenic trioxide into an 
insoluble ferrous arsenate. 

2Fe 2 H 6 6 + 2As0 3 H 3 =Fe 3 2AsO, + FeO + 9H 2 

Tests and Analysis. — The tests for the presence of arsenic 
differ according to the state in which arsenic is found. If 



40 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

arsenic trioxide is found in substance dispersed amongst the 
food, it should carefully be recovered by draining off the liquids 
and then picking the small particles carefully from the sur- 
rounding material with the aid of forceps and a magnifying 
glass. If sufficient of it is obtained in this way it may, after dry- 
ing, be weighed and a part of it ignited on charcoal with the 
blow-pipe flame, when the alliaceous odor of the oxidized metal 
will be observed. This may be confirmed by heating a small 
quantity in the point of a reduction tube, when it will be vola- 
tilized without melting, and will sublime at a further and cooler 
point of the tube. If the sublimate be inspected under the mi- 
croscope, it will then be seen to consist of beautiful minute octo- 
hedral crystals. If in a similar tube a small particle be placed 
at the end and a small splinter of charcoal above it in the small 
end also, and it be heated to volatilize the arsenic and heat the 
charcoal to redness, the arsenic trioxide vapor will be reduced 
and a ring of grayish blue elementary arsenic will sublime a 
little distance above. The same may be effected by heating a 
mixture of arsenic with sodic carbonate and powdered char- 
coal in a plain reduction tube or bulbed for that purpose. The 
identity of the arsenic may be shown by adding a small quan- 
tity of a solution of sodic hypochlorite, in which it will dis- 
solve ; or if the tube be cut off below the arsenic sublimate and 
this heated with access of air, a ring of white crystals of arsen- 
ious trioxide will be formed above, which can by means of heat 
be readily chased along the tube. A mixture of about equal 
parts of sodic carbonate and potassic cyanide placed over the 
arsenic either as trioxide or trisulphide in the reduction tube 
in several times its volume, will be found a very delicate re- 
ducing agent. When the arsenic is obtained only in solution 
it will give a yellow precipitate with a solution of ammonio- 
argentic nitrate. With the ammonio-cupric sulphate solution 
it will give a beautiful green precipitate of amorphous cupric 
arsenite. The most useful and ready method of precipitating 
arsenic from its solutions is by means of a stream of hydrogen 
sulphide developed from a gas bulb containing ferrous sulphide 
and sulphuric acid, FeS + S0 4 H 2 = S0 4 Fe + H 2 S ; this, with 
the As 2 O s , gives As 2 3 -f- 3H 2 S = As 2 S 3 + 3H 2 0. The arsen- 
ical solution should be slightly acidulated with HC1, when a 



ARSENTC. 41 

precipitate of beautiful yellow color, As 2 S 3 , will result. If this 
is filtered and washed, then dried and placed in a reduction 
tube with equal parts of each, sodic carbonate and potassic 
cyanide, the reduction will give an arsenical ring, as above 
described, which can be confirmed as before. This can be 
made still more delicate if the reduction is made, according to 
Fresenius and Babo, in a current of dry carbon dioxide. The 
Reinsch's test consists in boiling a strip of pure copper foil in 
an arsenic solution acidulated with HC1 for about five minutes, 
when it will be covered with a bluish-gray film of elementary 
arsenic. If the copper is then removed, carefully wiped and 
dried, rolled up and placed in a reduction tube, a white ring of 
arsenic trioxide will sublime in the tube, which can be readily 
recognized under the microscope. By far the most delicate 
and largely used test for the detection of arsenic is the so-called 
Marsh's test, which depends on the formation of hydrogen 
arsenide in the presence of nascent hydrogen, if arsenic in solu- 
tion be present. The hydrogen in Marsh's test is generated 
from pure zinc, by means of pure H 2 S0 4 and water. 

Zn -f H 2 S0 4 + H 2 = ZriSO, + H, + H 2 0. 

The apparatus in this process should first be tested to insure 
its freedom from arsenic by burning the hydrogen from the 
point of exit and showing absence of arsenic stain on a cool 
porcelain surface. Then arsenic solution is added, when the 
flame will turn green, light vapors of arsenic tri-oxide will arise, 
and if cooled against a porcelain slab, an arsenic stain will 
be produced. This can be proven as such by dissolving it in 
sodic hypochlorite solution, or if on moistening with HN0 3 
and evaporating, it gives a brick-red stain with argentic nitrate. 
If the tube along its course be heated to redness a ring of 
arsenic will be deposited, which, if cut off and sublimed with 
access of air, can be proven crystals of arsenic trioxide. As 
this test may give rise to confusion with antimony, a better 
plan is to employ instead of the zinc and H 2 S0 4 aluminium and 
a solution of potassic hydroxide, as follows : 

2A1 + 2KHO + 2H 2 = Al AK 2 + 6H. 

The advantage of this is the absence of arsenic in the mate- 
rial employed, greater and more rapid generation of gas, and 

4 



42 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

the absence of hydrogen antimonide, which does not develop 
from the alkaline solution. As a modification of this, a very- 
ingenious test has been proposed by Fleitmann, by adding to a 
few pieces of aluminium in a test tube a little solution potassic 
hydroxide, not exceeding f^th volume of tube, adding thereto 
the solution to be tested, and capping the test tube with white 
filtering paper on which a drop or two of argentic nitrate solu- 
tion has been placed. If arsenic is present a dark stain will 
show the reduced metallic silver on the paper, which with 
antimony does not take place. 

To detect the presence of arsenic in the tissues they should be 
cut up fine, and treated with HC1 and additions of KC10 3 thereto 
until a clear yellow liquid supervenes, which is again treated 
with sulphur dioxide until all odor of chlorine has disappeared, 
after which the liquid is treated by one of the above tests. To 
test quantitatively for arsenic by Marsh's test the AsH 3 is led 
into a properly diluted solution of AgN0 3 , which must be kept 
slightly in excess ; the AgN0 3 is decomposed into Ag, and 
As 2 3 is obtained in solution. When precipitation ceases the 
solution is treated with HC1 to precipitate excess of N0 3 Ag as 
AgCl, after which the arsenic is precipitated by H 2 S, and 
determined as As 2 S 3 . 

COPPER. 

Q u i and u __ 63.5, specific gravity 8.9. 

A brownish metallic substance of great ductility, malleable, 
and a good conductor of heat and electricity. It is largely 
used for making culinary vessels, and enters into various alloys 
of importance. It combines with oxygen to form two oxides, 
the Cuprous, Cu 2 and the Cupric oxide, CuO. A yellowish- 
red hydrate of cuprous oxide is precipitated if cupric salts are 
boiled with glucose in presence of an excess of alkali. 

There are two chlorides, the cuprous, Cu 2 Cl 2 and the cupric, 
both of little interest in medicine. Only one nitrate is known, 
the cupric Cu(N0 3 ) 2 , also only one cupric sulpliate, the common 
Milestone or blue vitriol, CuS0 4 -f- 5H 2 0. This is one of its 
most important salts. It comes in beautiful blue oblique prisms, 
soluble in about 2.5 parts of water at 15 C. It is efflorescent, 
and at about 225 ° loses its water and forms a white amor- 



copper. 43 

phous powder, which is again soluble with blue color; it is of 
acid reaction, and styptic, nauseant, metallic taste. With am- 
monium hydroxide it yields a dense blue precipitate, which is 
redissolved in excess of ammonia, but may be crystallized by 
addition of alcohol ; it is called ammonio-cupric sulphate. 

The preparations known as Scheele's or Schweinfurt, also 
Paris green, have been treated under arsenic on account of the 
greater importance of their arsenical components. 

Cuprous sulpiride, Cu 2 S, and cupric sulpiride, CuS, are of but 
little interest to the physician, as are the cupric carbonate, 
CuCo 3 , the di-cupric carbonate, CuC0 3 CuH 2 2 , and the tri- 
cupric or cupric sesqui-carbonate. 

Next to the sulphate as toxic agents rank the cupric diace- 
tate, Cu(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 + H 2 0, and principally the basic cupric ace- 
tate, well known as verdigris. This is a complex of various 
lower acetates of a bluish-green or green color, and of a dis- 
tinct acetous odor. 

Toxicology. — Copper is no longer considered as poisonous 
or dangerous as once thought ; in its metallic state it is even 
considered without serious effect on the organism, and many 
of the poisoning cases attributed to it from food prepared in a 
copper vessel, are attributable rather to contamination of the 
copper itself with arsenic or the solder employed. Its com- 
pounds, however, especially the acetates, are markedly and 
actively poisonous, and are often taken with suicidal intent. 
Food containing vinegar or acids should not be cooked in 
copper vessels, nor should food of any kind be allowed to stand 
in them. A source of danger from the poisonous effects of 
copper are soda water apparatus of copper, which are not, or 
improperly, protected. While pure water will not act on copper, 
the carbonic acid water acts on it very readily, and vomiting 
after the consumption of such waters should throw suspicion 
on their purity and lead to analysis thereof. The cupric 
sulphate acts as an irritant, which should be taken into con- 
sideration in the treatment. 

Establishing but small amounts of copper in a body after 
death is of no significance, as it is generally present in traces. 
Copper salts are said to be occasionally employed to color 
canned vegetables or pickles, but this can be readily detected 



44 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

by inserting a clean iron or steel surface, which will soon be 
coated by metallic copper. Poisoning by copper salts should 
be treated by encouraging the emesis probably taking place, or 
producing it by warm drinks, or even by the stomach pump. 
Albumen is serviceable as an antidote if administered in large 
quantities, as well as milk, but emetics should always follow 
the antidotes. 

Tests and Analysis. — H 2 S black precipitate soluble in po- 
tassic cyanide and hot HNO s . KHO, pale-green precipitate, 
rendered black on boiling. Ammonium hydrate gives a blue 
precipitate, soluble in excess with beautiful dark-blue color. 
Potassic ferrocyanide produces a chestnut-brown precipitate of 
cupric ferrocyanide, decolorized by KHO. A bright iron or 
steel instrument inserted in an acidulated solution of copper 
salt is coated with metallic copper in a short time. 

MERCURY. 

Hg ' and m = 200, specific gravity 13.596. 

A bright metallic liquid, congeals at — 40 , slightly vola- 
tilizes at all temperatures, boils at 350 C. Hot H 2 S0 4 dissolves 
it, forming mercuric sulphate and sulphur dioxide ; with cold 
HNO3 it forms nitrate. 

It is used in its metallic state for filling thermometers and 
barometers, also as alloys called amalgams for covering looking- 
glasses. In medicine metallic mercury enters hydrargyrum 
cum creta, massa hydrargyri and unguentum hydrargyri. 

It forms two oxides, of which the merciirons, Hg 2 0, is formed 
by the action of calcic hydrate (lime water) on mercurous 
chloride (calomel), the mixture being known in medicine as 
black wash, lotio nigra. 

The mercuric oxide, also called red oxide of mercury, HgO, 
is prepared in two ways, and accordingly, if sublimed in a crys- 
talline state, it is called red precipitate, whereas, if precipitated 
from a mercuric solution with sodic or potassic hydrate, it forms 
an amorphous yellow powder called yellow oxide of mercury, 
hydrargyri oxidum flavum. Exposed to red heat in a test 
tube or retort it is decomposed, and metallic mercury is distilled 
over and oxygen liberated. 



MERCURY. 45 

The sulphides have little importance, the mercurous Hg 2 S 
being unstable, and the native mercuric sulphide HgS, the 
cinnabar or vermilion of commerce, is claimed not to be poi- 
sonous, and is largely used in the arts and as a paint. The 
mercuric salts are best determined quantitatively as sulphides, , 
hence their mention here. 

The chlorides of mercury offer the greatest interest of all 
the mercury compounds for the physician. They are not alone 
important medicinal agents, but the mercuric also ranges with 
arsenic as the most frequently used poison, leading in its use 
to the most serious consequences. 

The mercurous chloride, Hg 2 Cl 2 > (calomel) comes generally 
as a white amorphous powder, though crystallizable. It is 
sublimed by heat without fusing, and is insoluble both in cold 
water and alcohol. Its most frequent contaminant is mercuric 
chloride, which can be detected by immersing a bright iron 
instrument into a mixture of Hg 2 Cl 2 and alcohol. If a dark 
stain forms HgCl 2 is present. 

Hg 2 Cl 2 in the presence of HCl r or HC1 -f HN0 3 , also CI 
and alkaline chlorides, is converted into HgCl 2 , a fact that 
should be borne in mind when so dispensed. By the action of 
alkaline hydrates or carbonates it is reduced to Hg 2 0. 

Mercuric chloride HgCl 2 , corrosive sublimate, is of crystal- 
line form, which, if sublimed, consists of rectangular octahedra ; 
and, if crystallized by evaporation, ortho-rhombic prisms. It is 
white, semi-transparent, specific gravity 5.43, melts at 265 ° C. 
and boils at 295 °. It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether, and 
has an acrid, metallic, nauseant taste, and reacts acid. With 
H 2 S it forms HgS, which first is white, then yellow, and finally 
black. Potassic, sodic, calcic and magnesic hydrates precipitate 
it from its solutions as HgO. With KI it forms a bright scarlet 
precipitate Hgl 2 , soluble in excess. It is precipitated by albu- 
men as albuminate, which is soluble in an excess. By NH^HO 
it is decomposed into 

Amido-mercuric chloride, ClHgNH 2 , called white precipitate, 
which finds use in medicine as an external application. 

The mercurous iodide, Hg 2 I 2 , or green iodide, can be best 
prepared by precipitating a mercurous nitrate with KI, or by 



46 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

triturating metallic mercury with iodine and alcohol. It is 
largely employed in syphilis. 

Mercuric iodide, Hgl 2 , or red iodide of mercury, is prepared 
from HgCl 2 and KI, avoiding excess of the latter, in which it 
rapidly forms potassic iodo-hydrargyrate, which and also Hgl 2 
are largely employed internally. 

Mercuric cyanide, Hg(CN) 2 , is occasionally used medicinally. 

Of the three merciirons nitrates, one is of special interest, 
Hg 2 (N0 3 ) 2 + 2H 2 0, prepared by treating mercury in excess 
with nitric acid and H 2 0, equal parts, and evaporating until 
prismatic crystals separate. 

Of the three mercuric nitrates, Hg(N0 3 ) 2 , made by treat- 
ing Hg with an excess of HN0 3 is important. It is contained 
in the liquor hydrargyri nitratis, and also enters into the 
unguent, hydrarg. nitratis. 

The two sulphates, Hg 2 S0 4 and HgSO^, are of no interest 
in medicine. 

Toxicology. — Although metallic mercury has no poisonous 
action as long as it remains in its metallic state, and is known 
to have been taken in immense quantities with impunity, its 
vapors at all degrees of temperature exert a poisonous effect, 
noticeable with those handling it in the arts. Its compounds 
are less dangerous the more insoluble they are, but may, under 
favorable circumstances for their conversion into soluble com- 
pounds, readily prove of serious consequence. The most 
powerful of all its compounds are undoubtedly the mercuric 
chloride, iodide and cyanide. The former on account of its 
general use, both as a medicinal agent and insecticide, is the 
most frequently encountered as a toxic. That its primary effect, 
as a corrosive, is almost as much to be feared as its constitu- 
tional effect, is well known, as it can be injected hypodermically 
in doses that are inadmissible when taken by the mouth. That 
it is capable, however, of being rapidly absorbed, even after 
forming albuminates, would appear from the reported toxic 
effect after its free use as an antiseptic. 

It is excreted by the saliva and urine, and can be detected 
in both. If taken in poisonous doses albumen or milk should 
be freely administered, but promptly removed by the stomach 
pump to prevent its being redissolved, again to be followed by 



LEAD. 47 

more albumen or milk and emesis, and finally with demulcents. 
For chronic mercurialism give KI. 

Tests and Analysis. — The chemical tests for mercurous 
salts are, hydrogen sulphide, black precipitate ; sublimation in 
tube without fusion ; Hg 2 Cl 2 turns black on addition of calcic 
hydrate; metallic mercury can be recognized by volatilizing and 
condensing on gold foil as a white stain. Paper saturated with 
ammonio-argentic nitrate is stained black by vapors of Hg. 
A solution of mercuric salt, if dropped on a copper surface 
with a drop of solution of KI added, produces a mercury stain. 

H 2 S gives with mercuric solutions, if gradually added, first 
white, then yellow, lastly black precipitate ; potassic or sodic 
hydrates, yellow ; ammonium hydrate, white ; potassic iodide, 
scarlet precipitate, the latter redissolved in excess of precipi- 
tants. To determine corrosive sublimate, test similar as with 
Reinsch's test without heat. The copper coated with mercury, 
if placed in reduction tube, will sublime minute globules of 
mercury, to be recognized by the microscope ; if in sufficient 
quantity and touched with a little iodine it turns red (Hgl 2 ). If 
in urine it should be acidulated with HC1. It can be detected 
also by immersing a zinc staff covered with gold leaf into the 
acidulated urine or fluid, and then subliming it therefrom, as 
in the copper test. To determine HgCl 2 quantitatively its 
solution should be acidulated with HC1 and precipitated with 
H 2 S, and the precipitate well washed and dried. 100 parts of 
sulphide so derived represent 1 16.8 parts HgCl 2 or 82.6 Hg. 

LEAD. 

Pb UandiT =207, specific gravity 1 1.3. 

A heavy metallic element which fuses at 325 ° C. It is 
largely employed, both pure and in alloys, for making water 
pipes, also to make pewter vessels, and as solder. 

Its principal oxides are litharge, lead monoxide, PbO. The 
plumbic ortho-phnnbate, PbgPbO^, sometimes written as Pb 3 + 
is known as minium, and as such largely employed as pigment. 

The native sulpiride, PbS, a grayish crystalline substance of 
metallic lustre, is known as galena. 

The chlorides, PbCl 2 and PbCl^ are principally of analytical 
interest. 



48 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

The lead 'iodide , Pbl 2 is used externally in medicine. 

The lead nitrate of the Pharmacopoeia, Pb(NO s ) 2 is occasion- 
ally employed as a disinfectant. 

The neutral lead sulphate, PbS0 4 is an insoluble white powder. 

As toxic agents the lead carbonate, chromate and acetates 
are most common. 

Lead carbonate, PbC0 3 is very largely used as a white pig- 
ment in paints. 

Lead chromate, PbCr0 4 , of beautiful yellow color, is also used 
as pigment, and* while insoluble in water, is soluble in alkalies. 
It is not infrequently used as coloring for confections, and as 
such very deleterious. 

Neutral lead acetate, sugar of lead, Pb(C 2 H 3 2 ) 2 -f- 3H 2 0, 
crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, has sweet metallic taste, 
is efflorescent, fuses at 75 ° C, loses acetic acid at ioo°, and at 
280 it fuses, and if further heated on charcoal with blowpipe 
flame leaves a soft malleable globule of metallic lead. 

The basic acetates are of interest as medicinal agents, by 
forming the principal ingredient of liquor plumbi subacetatis. 

Toxicology. — The soluble lead salts and many of the in- 
soluble ones are active poisons, and on account of their slow 
elimination are very dangerous as such. While probably little 
is to be feared from poisoning by lead with homicidal intent, as 
a contaminant of food and beverages it is frequently met with 
and provokes most distressing and dangerous symptoms. 
Though metallic lead does not exert poisonous action as such, 
water pipes containing it, by the alternate action of air and water, 
are soon affected and converted into soluble and poisonous 
compounds. The chronic poisoning known as painters' colic 
depends often for its recognition on chemical tests, and is often 
provoked by the handling of lead pigments, leaden vessels, and 
has been known to be induced by hair-dyes containing it. 
Though slow of elimination, its presence may be often con- 
firmed in the urine, sweat and dejecta. The principal antidote 
after the ingestion of soluble lead salts is sulphuric acid, and 
better still, magnesic sulphate to form insoluble lead sulphate, 
which should be removed by prompt emetics or stomach pump. 
For chronic lead poisoning potassic iodide is the most service- 
able remedy, as favoring its elimination in a soluble condition. 



PHOSPHORUS. 49 

Tests and Analysis. — H 2 S gives a heavy black precipitate 
from acid solutions, insoluble in acids ; ammonium sulphydrate 
black precipitate, insoluble in excess. NH 4 HO, white precipi- 
tate, insoluble in excess. KHO, white precipitate, soluble in 
excess. HgSO^, white precipitate. KI, yellow precipitate. 
KCrO, yellow precipitate of PbCr0 4 , soluble in KHO. For the 
detection of lead in potable water, Blyth recommends a I per 
cent, alcoholic tincture of cochineal, which gives a precipitate. 
In testing for lead in the stomach, intestines, etc., the contents 
should be treated with HN0 3 and precipitated by H 2 S, which 
is also to be done in testing urine for lead, by evaporating and 
treating residue in such a manner. 

Quantitatively lead may be determined as sulphide, of which 
ioo parts represent 86.19 metallic lead. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

pal ana ir — ^j 5 specific gravity 1.83, red 2.2. 

This exists in two allotropic conditions known respectively as 
white and red. The white is a yellowish waxy substance which 
melts at 40°C. In air it gives rise to white vapors and the 
smell of ozone ; it is luminous in the dark (phosphorescent). 
It is preserved under water, as it readily ignites in the air. It 
is soluble in ether, carbon disulphide, and in the fats and oils. 
Its most common application, in the manufacture of matches 
and rat poisons, gives often rise to toxic effect from it. 

The red variety is without taste and odor, of dark red color, 
does not melt nor ignite at ordinary temperature, and is non- 
luminous. 

Phosphorus forms three direct compounds with H, of which 
the gaseous hydroge7i phosphide, H 3 P, phosphine, is of prin- 
cipal interest. It is spontaneously inflammable, poisonous, of 
garlic odor, specific gravity 1.24, prepared by heating P. with 
solution of KHO or by the action of H 2 on calcic phosphide. 

The phosphorus trioxide, P 2 3 , and pentoxide, P 2 5 , require 
no mention here. 

Hypophosphorous acid, H 3 P0 2 , and its salts are of impor- 
tance as remedial agents. 

The three principal acids of phosphorus are mono-hydric 



50 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

phosphate, glacial or metaphosphoric acid, HP0 3 , coagulates 
albumen, white precipitate with baric and calcic chlorides, 
gelatinous precipitate, with AgN0 3 . 

Dihydric phosphate, pyro-phosplioric acid, H 4 P 2 7 , does not 
affect albumen, calcic or baric chloride; white precipitate with 
AgN0 3 + a little NH 4 HO. 

TriJiydric phosphate, ortho-phosphoric acid, H 3 P0 4 (officinal), 
does not affect albumen, calcic and baric chlorides; with 
AgN0 3 + a little NH 4 HO, it gives a yellow precipitate ; with 
ammonium molybdate solution and HN0 3 , yellow precipitate. 

Toxicology. — Phosphoric acid can be said to be non-poison- 
ous in ordinary doses, though the meta- and pyrophosphoric 
acids seem to act on the heart in a manner that may produce 
serious effects. Hydrogen phosphide is poisonous, but so 
rarely met with as to be of no importance as a toxic. Red phos- 
phorus, owing to its insolubility, is considered non-poisonous, 
while the white variety is one of the most dangerous poisons 
there is. The recoveries from its effects are very few, and, 
though some time may elapse after its ingestion, the patient is 
apt to develop alarming symptoms and die suddenly. The me- 
chanical effect is often inconsiderable, and the toxic effect mani- 
fests itself notwithstanding. Constitutional symptoms may result 
even from external burns by phosphorus, and these should be 
treated at once by chlorinated lime or soda solutions or chlorine 
water. The treatment of poisoning by phosphorus calls for 
speedy emesis, preferably with cupric sulphate. Calcined mag- 
nesia is the most reliable antidote, and though fits are con- 
traindicated, old oil of turpentine has been much recommended 
in such cases, but no positive chemical antidote for it is known. 
Chronic poisoning by phosphorus is often reported in persons 
employed in match factories, where white phosphorus is used, 
and often results in necrosis of the maxillary bones. Many 
preventives against this have been proposed, but the use of red 
phosphorus alone can be said to answer to that end. 

Tests and Analysis. — The tests for phosphoric acid have 
been given under that head, and as phosphorus is used as a 
toxic agent principally in substance, the examination for un- 
oxidized phosphorus in human remains, etc., is of importance. 
It may frequently be recognized by its odor and phosphor- 



ALKALIES AND ACIDS AS POISONS. 5 I 

escence on mere inspection, but this should in all cases be con- 
firmed by chemical tests. Thus if the suspected' fluid is acid- 
ulated with a little tartaric acid or H 2 S0 4 in a flask, and attached 
to the cork is a strip of argentic nitrate paper, this on heating 
will turn black, owing to the formation of silver phosphide. As 
H 2 S may be present, however, and this have the same effect, it 
is well to prove its absence, by a strip of plumbic acetate paper 
introduced in the same manner. After such preliminary ex- 
amination the flask is attached to a glass Liebig's condenser 
placed vertically, and the vapors driven over with a current of 
dry C0 2 , when the presence of phosphorus is revealed by the 
luminosity of the unoxidized phosphorus in the cool por- 
tion of the condenser. As this is interfered with by certain 
essential oils, alcohol and ether, and especially oil of tur- 
pentine, frequently employed as antidote, and thus negative 
results obtained, the vapors are to be passed through a neutral 
solution of AgN0 3 , which, if phosphorus is present, will yield 
a black precipitate of silver phosphide. To confirm this, the 
deposit is put in a Marsh apparatus, when the gas therefrom 
will show in the inner flame a bright green. To test quanti- 
tatively, the distillate obtained above together with fragments 
of phosphorus found, should be treated with chlorine water for 
twelve hours, evaporated, saturated with NH^HO, precipitated 
by magnesium mixture, as ammonio-magnesic-phosphate, this 
collected and by ignition converted into magnesic pyrophos- 
phate and weighed: ioo parts of this represent 27.92 phos- 
phorus. 



ALKALIES AND ACIDS AS POISONS. 

These would comprise certain caustic alkalies or alkaline 
hydrates and acids which act as corrosive poisons, and as a rule 
give rise to toxic effects more from accident than intent, also 
certain organic acids and their derivatives, which prove consti- 
tutional poisons, and are frequently used with homi- and sui- 
cidal intention. 



12 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

POTASSIC HYDRATE OR HYDROXIDE. KHO. 

This in substance is frequently met with in cylindrical form 
and commonly known in solution as potash lye. It acts very 
destructiveiy on animal tissues, gives rise to a soapy touch be- 
tween the fingers and has a soapy taste ; forms many soluble 
compounds in the body and acts destructively on the coats of 
the stomach and intestines, so much as to give rise to perfora- 
tion in many instances. The treatment in cases of poisoning 
should be with a view to its neutralization with dilute acids, 
lemon juice, etc., or also with a view to saponification by oils, 
milk, or, best of all, oleic acid, if on hand. Many of the 
neutral salts of potassium are also poisonous if taken in suffi- 
cient quantities especially the chlorate, nitrate and sulphate. 

Tests and Analysis. — Potassic hydrate and potassic salts 
may be recognized by imparting to the outer flame of a Bunsen 
burner a violet tint recognized through the spectroscope as red 
and blue lines. The alkaline reaction and neutralization by 
acids without effervescence besides the flame test would indicate 
potassic hydrate. If neutralized it will cause, like all pot- 
salts, a yellow precipitate of platino-potassic chloride with 
platinic chloride, insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in e: 
water. With tartaric acid potassic hydrate solutions precipi- 
tate crystalline hydro-potassic tartrate (cream of tartar). Picric 
acid forms, when in excess, yellow precipitate of potassic picrate. 

The quantitative determination of KHO must be conducted 
by the process mentioned under Alkalimetry, or if and how far 
neutralized, may be determined as chloride, or bromide by the 
volumetric solution of AgX0 3 . 

SODIC HYDRATE OR HYDROXIDE. XaHO. 

Like the foregoing, this is generally met with in s and 

solution, the latter also termed soda lye. 

Its action on the economy is the same as that of pota- 
hydrate, and the treatment for cases of poisoning by it should 
be the same. 

Tests and Analysis. — It imparts, like all sodium salts, a 
yellow tint to the cuter flame of a Bunsen burner, which is 



SULPHURIC ACID. 53 

readily recognizable through the spectroscope as a yellow band. 
The alkaline reaction and neutralization without effervescence 
or precipitation would characterize it, together with the flame 
test, as sodic hydrate. 

The quantitative analysis would also be conducted by alka- 
limetry, ascertaining by subsequent volumetric determination 
the amount of neutral salts admixed thereto. 

AMMONIUM HYDRATE OR HYDROXIDE, XH 4 HO. 

A solution of ammoniacal gas in water, of various strength. 
Water is capable of taking it up in large quantities, and as it 
occurs in commerce it is of sufficient strength to act as a corro- 
sive poison. It has all the physical characters of alkaline hy- 
drates, but by heat it is, as well as its salts, entirely volatilized. 
Its neutral salts, if warmed with KHO or XaHO, give off 
ammoniacal odor, which, with HC1, forms dense white vapors 
of XH.C1. Its action upon the tissues is similar to that of the 
aforementioned KHO and XaHO, and the measures to be 
adopted for poisoning by it are also alike. 

Tests and Analysis. — The odor of ammonia is so charac- 
teristic that it can readily be recognized, if not neutralized, or 
if present in sufficient amount. The white vapor created with 
HC1 is readily observed. Mercuric chloride gives a white pre- 
cipitate with ammonia. As much of the ammonia taken in- 
ternally is neutralized in the stomach, the test for its salts will 
be necessary. They yield with platinic chloride a yellow pre- 
cipitate ; strong solutions give a white precipitate of amnionic 
tartrate with tartaric acid ; with picric acid a yellow precipi- 
tate of ammonic picrate ; Xessler's test q.v. . orange yellow 
precipitate. 

Its quantitative estimation is accomplished by the normal 
solution of oxalic acid and that of its salts as chloride by 
AgNO, 

SULPHURIC ACID, Hydrogen Sulphate, H 2 SO.. 

This acid gives rise to poisoning more often from accidental 
ingestion than from any attempt of homicide or suicide, al- 
though instances of this kind have been reported. It acts upon 



54 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

the tissues as a purely corrosive agent, as sufficiently diluted in 
ordinary doses it has no toxic action. As result of extreme 
corrosion, perforation of the alimentary tract seems its most 
usual effect. Besides its internal abuse, the habit of vitriol- 
throwing with the intent of disfigurement of features and 
apparel has become quite frequent, and with it the necessity 
of proving its identity in such cases. 

Its effect on dark textiles is to produce red stains, which, 
when fresh, can be removed by ammonic hydrate, but if left 
alone they will soon turn brown and cause the destruction of 
the material. 

The treatment of cases, where H 2 S0 4 has been swallowed, 
consists in neutralizing it as speedily as possible by calcic car- 
bonate (chalk), magnesic carbonate and alkaline carbonates in 
milk. Solution of soap is perhaps one of the best, if not 
the best antidote, as the oleo-palmitic acid so formed is not 
alone a demulcent, but keeps the sodic sulphate in an emulsi- 
fied state, in which it is readily ejected by emesis. 

Tests and Analysis. — Baric chloride or nitrate give a white 
precipitate with H 2 S0 4 , or its salts, insoluble in HC1 or HN0 3 ; 
strontium nitrate, a white precipitate, somewhat soluble in HC1 
and HN0 3 ; lead acetate, white precipitate, sparingly soluble in 
acids and alkalies ; CaCl 2 , white precipitate, soluble in warm 
water. Metallic copper, with H 2 S0 4 , gives rise to sulphur 
dioxide and blue solution of cupric sulphate. Cane sugar, if 
treated with H^SO^, is charred. 

The quantitative estimation of H 2 S0 4 is best effected by the 
volumetric method, with a standard solution of KHO, of which 
100 c.c. correspond to 4.9 grams of H 2 S0 4 , specific gravity 
1.84; also by converting it into baric sulphate, 100 parts of 
which correspond to 42.06 H 2 S0 4 , or 34.33 sulphuric anhy- 
dride (S0 3 ). 

NITRIC ACID, Hydrogen Nitrate, HN0 3 . 

Like the preceding, this acid cannot be said to be a true 
poison, but only destructive to life by its corrosive local action. 
It has the property of producing light yellow stains, which 
gradually turn brown. Its yellow stain on dark textiles can- 



HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 55 

not be extinguished by the application of NH 4 HO. The treat- 
ment for cases of poisoning by this acid is the same as laid 
down for H 2 S0 4 . 

Tests and Analysis. — Metallic copper yields when heated 
with HN0 3 a greenish-blue solution of cupric nitrate, with es- 
cape of brown fumes of nitrogen tetroxide. HNO a , mixed with 
equal volumes of H-jSC^, and a piece of ferrous sulphate added 
to the mixture, turns first black, then brown and reddish- 
brown. Sulphindigotic acid boiled, with sufficient HC1 to 
color it blue, has its color discharged by boiling the mixture 
with HN0 3 . A few drops of H 2 S0 4 and a little aqueous solu- 
tion of brucine is an addition of HN0 3 , colored blood-red, or 
pink if dilute. 

The quantitative estimation of HNO s cannot be readily 
accomplished directly, but if the acid is converted into baric 
nitrate it can be estimated as a sulphate by precipitation with 
H 2 S0 4 , 100 parts of baric nitrate corresponding to 77.2 HNO s , 
specific gravity 1.424. 



HYDROCHLORIC ACID, Hydrogen Chloride, HC1. 

Like the foregoing, this acid acts as a corrosive ; on dark 
textile material it produces bright red stains, but does not 
destroy the texture as rapidly as H 2 S0 4 . On addition of NH^HO 
the stains, if recent, will disappear. The treatment for over- 
doses should also consist of neutralizing agents and demulcents. 

Tests and Analysis. — With argentic nitrate it gives a curdy 
white precipitate, insoluble in HN0 3 , soluble in NH^HO, 
potassic cyanide, sodic hyposulphite, and turning purplish- 
brown on exposure to sunlight. With manganese dioxide it 
yields chlorine ; with mercurous nitrate a white precipitate of 
Hg.Cl, 

Quantitatively it is determined by volumetric analysis with 
the standard solution of argentic nitrate. I c.c. decinormal 
argentic nitrate solution corresponds to 0.00365 HC1. Gravi- 
metrically 100 parts argentic chloride formed, correspond to 
25 43 absolute HC1. 



56 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

CARBOLIC ACID, Phenyl hydrate, C 6 H 5 HO. 

This hydrate of the monad radical C 6 H 5 cannot be classed 
with acids, and would better be called phenic alcohol, but as it 
is commonly called an acid it will be taken up here under this 
heading. It forms colorless or pinkish crystals, soluble in ether 
and alcohol and in 20 parts of water 15 , melts at 35 , and 
boils at 187 . It has a characteristic odor which is less un- 
pleasant the purer it is. It rapidly coagulates albuminoids and 
produces white stains on fingers and hands, accompanied by a 
feeling of numbness. 

On account of its free use as an antiseptic in medicine and 
its popularity as a disinfectant, cases of accidental poisoning 
with this substance have become very frequent of late. Al- 
though its poisonous action is to be attributed principally to 
corrosion of the alimentary organs, it also exerts some consti- 
tutional toxic effect, which is shown by the fatal cases of 
absorption from wounds and abraded surfaces. It whitens the 
mouth and tongue when swallowed, and is excreted by the 
kidneys, rendering the urine often of various colors, from green 
to black, but as a rule without decomposition. 

Treatment. — Oils, fats, absorbents, demulcents, followed by 
emetics. 

Tests and analysis. — HNO s in excess produces yellow pris- 
matic crystals of trinitro-phenol, picric acid. A very delicate 
test is to add to its aqueous solution a small quantity of 
NH 4 HO, and if then brought in contact with vapor of bromine, 
a bright blue color is obtained. An aqueous solution of car- 
bolic acid with mercurous nitrate and traces of HN0 3 , if heated, 
gives intense red color with separation of Hg. From urine 
and tissues it should be recovered by distillation after acidulat- 
ing the liquids with tartaric acid, extraction of distillate with 
ether, evaporation and solution in water and applying one of 
the above tests. 

OXALIC ACID, C 2 H 2 4 +2H 2 = i26. 

A dibasic acid existing in many plants and occasionally in 
urine, now artificially prepared, crystallizing in transparent 



HYDROCYANIC ACID. 57 

prisms, fusing at 98 ; heated to 177 it volatilizes and does not 
char. Heated with H 2 S0 4 it decomposes without charring 
into Co or Co 2 . It dissolves in 14 parts of water, also in 6 
parts 95 per cent, alcohol and 7 parts glycerin. It forms salts 
with potassium, sodium, etc. It is largely employed for clean- 
ing copper and iron, and to remove iron stains, etc. 

Toxicology. — On account of its popular use it is frequently 
met with as a poison, often occasioned by being mistaken for 
Epsom salts. It gives rise to local irritation, but its toxic effect 
is more that of a narcotic than a corrosive. Death may result 
either at once or after the lapse of some time. The hydro- 
potassic oxalate acts similar, and is also encountered in this 
way. Poisoning by oxalic acid or oxalates should be treated 
promptly and energetically by the use of slaked lime or mag- 
nesia, demulcent drinks and emetics where no corrosive action 
is apparent; diluents are contraindicated. 

Tests and analysis. — With AgN0 3 it gives white amor- 
phous precipitate, exploding when heated on platinum foil. 
Calcic hydrate, chloride or sulphate solutions give a white 
granular precipitate, soluble in HC1 and HN0 3 . Baric chloride, a 
white crystalline precipitate soluble in HC1 and HN0 3 . Lead 
acetate, a white precipitate soluble in HC1 and HN0 3 , insoluble 
in acetic acid. Urine should be examined microscopically for 
crystals of calcic oxalate. Quantitative determination by the 
standard solution of potassic hydrate, 100 c.c. of which corre- 
spond to 6.30 oxalic acid. 

HYDROCYANIC ACID, Hydrogen cyanide, Prussic 
acid, HCN or HCy — 27. 

A colorless liquid of a specific powerful odor, very poisonous 
and volatile. It mixes with alcohol, water and ether in all pro- 
portions. It is used medicinally, and when properly and 
freshly prepared, the officinal solution should contain 2 per 
cent. Litmus paper is reddened by it, which, however, is 
transient. Many of the other cyanides are also very poi- 
sonous, and amongst them potassic cyanide is foremost. This 
is frequently used for chemical purposes and is often employed 
with homicidal or suicidal intent, and accidents with it are not 
of rare occurrence. 

5 



58 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Hydrocyanic acid is one of the most powerful and rapidly 
acting poisons known, rarely admitting of treatment to coun- 
teract its effects ; treatment should nevertheless be instituted if 
life is not entirely extinct. 

Treatment. — Ammonia vapor, chlorine either in vapor or 
water, stimulants, and cold affusions, artificial respiration, and 
galvanism. Chemical antidote, mixture of ferrous and ferric 
salts with alkaline hydrates or carbonates. If patient lives for 
one hour, prognosis more favorable. 

Tests and analysis. — Characteristic odor of the poison. 
AgNo 3 white precipitate, insoluble in cold HN0 3 , soluble in 
alkaline cyanides and hyposulphites ; ammonic sulphhydrate 
and ferric chloride, red color. Potassic hydrate and mixture of 
ferrous and ferric salts, green precipitate, which with HC1 turns 
blue. Neutralized with KHO and picric acid it gives blood-red 
color. Mercurous nitrate gray precipitate of Hg. Guaiac paper 
moistened with cupric sulphate is turned blue by vapor of HCy. 
For forensic investigation the suspected liquid after dilution 
and acidulation with tartaric acid is distilled and tested as 
above. If to be determined quantitatively the distillate must 
be rectified with borax or calcic carbonate, to avoid HC1, if 
present therein, and then distilled into a solution of AgN0 3 to 
be recovered as argentic cyanide, ioo parts thereof correspond- 
ing to 20.15 parts absolute hydrocyanic acid. If potassic fer- 
rocyanide is present, the suspected liquid should be slightly 
acidulated with H 2 S0 4 , and the ferrocyanide precipitated as 
Prussian blue with ferric chloride, and after neutralizing the 
HoS0 4 with neutral potassic tartrate, the liquid is then distilled 
as before. 

SYLLABUS OF PART II. 

(1.) Precipitate solution of tartar emetic with hydrogen sul- 
phide; dissolve precipitate with hot HC1. Treat acidulated 
solution of an antimonial compound by Reinsch's test, roll up 
copper slip and volatilize antimony with access of air, note 
crystals under microscope. Test antimonial solution by Marsh's 
test, also by Fleitmann's test. In the latter case no silver stain 
is produced by antimony. 

(2.) Test arsenious acid by ignition an charcoal, note gar- 



SYLLABUS OF PART II. 59 

licky odor. Precipitate solution of arsenious acid with H 2 S. 
Note bright yellow color and solubility in NH 4 HO, insolubility 
in HC1. Separate precipitate of As 2 S 3 , dry and reduce with 
mixture of potassic cyanide and sodic carbonate; arsenic ring 
convertible in As 2 3 . Prepare antidote by precipitating Fe 2 Cl 3 
by NH^HO. Apply Reinsch's test and volatilize arsenic from 
copper by heat and examine sublimate under microscope. Test 
by Marsh's test ; arsenic film on porcelain slab dissolves in 
sodic hypochlorite; treat with HN0 3 , dry and apply AgN0 3 , 
brick-red color; heat tube in its course, cut off and heat with 
access of air, arsenious trioxide will be formed, recognized by 
microscope. Treat by Fleitmann's test, dark stain on argentic 
nitrate paper. 

(3.) Precipitate cupric sulphate solution with H 2 S. Add 
to solution of CuS0 4 a solution of KHO green precipitate 
turns black on boiling; add to former NH 4 HO, blue precipi- 
tate soluble in excess ; add potassic ferrocyanide brown precipi- 
tate, decolorized by KHO. Insert a bright iron instrument 
into an acidulated copper solution, it will be covered with 
metallic copper. 

(4.) Add to Hg 2 Cl 2 calcic hydrate and observe black precipi- 
tate. Heat metallic mercury in test tube and note sublimate 
under microscope as globular mercury which on gold foil pro- 
duces white stain. Add potassic or calcic hydrate to HgCI 2 
and note yellow precipitate. Add to HgCl 2 a little KI, note 
red precipitate soluble in excess. Apply Reinsch's test and 
volatilize mercury from copper, which examine under micro- 
scope for globular mercury. 

(5.) Treat solution of lead nitrate, with H 2 S, black precipitate ; 
with KI, yellow precipitate ; with H 2 S0 4 , white precipitate. Re- 
duce lead acetate with blowpipe on charcoal ; a globule of me- 
tallic lead is formed surrounded by yellow margin on charcoal. 

(6.) Note luminous appearance of phosphorus and its char- 
acteristic odor. Add to a flask containing phosphorous water 
a little tartaric acid and heat having closed mouth with cork 
to which a strip of argentic nitrate paper is attached, which 
will turn black. Place silver phosphide into test tube contain- 
ing zinc and H 2 S0 4 and burn the hydrogen phosphide ; note 
green flame. 



60 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

(7.) Note brown color of turmeric paper on touching with 
KHO. Observe violet color of flame test. Neutralize KHO 
and note yellow precipitate with platinic chloride. Add KHO 
to tartaric acid and note white granular deposit. Test with 
volumetric solution of oxalic acid in presence of litmus solution 
to determine strength. Examine flame through spectroscope. 

(8.) Introduce sodium salt on platinum wire into flame of 
Bunsen burner, and note yellow tint, also yellow bar through 
spectroscope. Observe alkaline reaction of sodic hydrate on 
test paper and note absence of effervescence when neutralized 
with acids. Determine strength volumetrically with standard 
solution of oxalic acid in presence of litmus solution. 

(9.) Hold bottle of HC1 to bottle of NH 4 HO and note white 
fumes. Note white precipitate of NH 4 HO with HgCl 2 . Pre- 
cipitate with platinic chloride, yellow ; with Nessler's test, 
orange ; volatilize salts of ammonia in tube. Determine strength 
of NH 4 HO volumetrically with standard solution of oxalic 
acid, or its salts with that of AgN0 3 . 

(10.) Add to H 2 S0 4 or a solution of sulphate a little baric 
chloride, note white precipitate. Add in test tube copper cut- 
tings to H 2 S0 4 and note odor of sulphur dioxide and bluish 
color of solution. Add to H 2 S0 4 a piece of cane sugar and 
evaporate, note charring. Make volumetric test of H 2 S0 4 with 
standard solution of KHO. 

(11.) Add to HNO3 in test tube cuttings of copper and note 
brown vapors. Add to sulphindigotic acid a little HC1 to 
render it blue, add HN0 3 to this and it will extinguish the 
color. Add to a few drops H 2 S0 4 some aqueous solution of 
brucine which on addition of HNO s turns red. Determine 
HNO3 by neutralizing with baric hydrate, precipitating with 
H 2 S0 4 , and compute amount of HN0 3 employed. 

(12.) Add argentic nitrate to HC1, white precipitate soluble 
in NH 4 HO and potassic cyanide. Add HC1 to manganese 
dioxide and observe chlorine liberated. Determine HC1 volu- 
metrically with standard solution of AgN0 3 . 

(13.) Add to carbolic acid HN0 3 in excess and note yellow 
crystalline deposit. Add to carbolic acid a little NH^HO, 
this with bromine vapor turns blue. To carbolic acid add a 
little mercurous nitrate, red color will result. 



ALBUMINOIDS OR PROTEIN BODIES. 6 1 

(14.) Add to oxalic acid a little AgN0 3 ; white precipitate if 
heated on platinum foil will explode. Add calcic hydrate to 
oxalic acid and note white granular precipitate soluble in HC1 
or HXO3. Add lead acetate to oxalic acid, and note white 
precipitate soluble in HC1 or HX0 3 . Determine volumetrically 
by standard solution of potassic hydrate. 

(15.) Note characteristic odor of HCy. White precipitate 
on addition to AgN0 3 soluble in alkaline cyanides and hypo- 
sulphites. Ammonium sulphhydrate and ferric chloride red 
color. Add KHO and a mixture of ferric and ferrous salts to 
HCy and observe precipitate which, on addition of HC1, turns 
blue. 



PART III. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. 

The investigation of the substances composing animal struc- 
ture and of those capable of being elaborated into it constitutes 
this Part. 

ALBUMINOIDS OR PROTEIN BODIES. 

These are bodies of great complexity in composition, derived 
from organic life, and differing in their solubility in water ; they 
are mostly insoluble in alcohol and ether, and generally col- 
loidal in character. They all yield an identical derivate, syn- 
tonin, and by the action of the gastric ferments are rendered 
soluble and diffusible as peptones, and are laevogyrous. On 
boiling with sulphuric acid, they yield amides known as leu- 
cine and tyrosine. 

With alkaline cupric sulphate solution, they produce a blue 
or violet color, deepening on boiling. With boiling HN0 3 , they 
are colored yellow, changing to orange and reddish-brown on 
addition of NH 4 HO when cold (xanthoproteic reaction). A red 
coloration is produced by them with Millon's test (q. v.). Al- 
though they differ in special features, their general characters 
are as follows : They coagulate on boiling ; nitric, metaphos- 
phoric and phosphotungstic acids precipitate them completely, 
as do also carbolic, picric and tannic acids. With a mixture of 



62 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

sulphuric and molybdic acids, they give a blue color. With an 
excess of glacial acetic acid, they give a violet color. When 
treated with alkaline hydrates, they form alkali albumin, and 
with very dilute acids are changed into acid albumin. They are 
very prone to putrescence, and, on account of their complex 
chemical composition, are subdivided according to their physi- 
cal characters and behavior to solvents. 

I. Soluble in Pure Water. 

(i.) Coagulable by heat: Serum albumin, Egg albumen. 
(2.) Non-coagulable by heat : Peptones. 

II. Insoluble in Water, but Soluble in Dilute (i per 

cent.) Sodic Chloride Solution. 

Globulins, coagulable by heat, carbonic acid, and readily 
forming albuminates. 

(1.) Precipitable with strong NaCl solution: Fibrinogen, Fi- 
brinoplastin, Myosin. 

(2.) Non-precipitable with strong NaCl solution : Vitellin y 
Crystallin. 

III. Insoluble in Water, or Dilute NaCl Solution; Sol- 

uble in Acids or Gastric Juice. 

(1.) Soluble in dilute HC1 or dilute alkalies : Acid albumin ; 
Alkali albumin ; Casein ; Fibrin. 

(2.) Insoluble in dilute acids and alkalies, but soluble by aid 
of digestive ferments : Coagulated Albumin. 

(3.) Insoluble in water, NaCl, dilute acids or gastric juice, 
soluble in stronger alkalies and strong HC1 : Lardacein (amy- 
loid substance). 

Serum albumin (Seralbumin, Serine), existing in blood, 
chyle, milk, lymph, serous fluids, liquids of cysts, muscles, and 
in urine pathologically. Its solutions are precipitated by 
HN0 3 ,HC1 (in an excess of which it is soluble and reprecipi- 
tated by dilution with water), tannic acid, metaphosphoric acid, 
metallic salts. It turns opaque when heated to 6o°. Coagu- 
lates at from 70 to 75 °. Preparation, from blood-serum or 
hydrocele fluid, by dropping in acetic acid, filtering and neu- 



ALBUMINOIDS OR PROTEIN BODIES. 63 

tralizing with sodic carbonate, and evaporating below 35 °. 
Remove paraglobulin by magnesic sulphate, filter, dialyse, and 
evaporate the dialysate in vacuo or sulphuric acid dessicator. 

Egg albumen (ov-albumen), from the white of eggs. It ap- 
pears to be a mixture of two bodies coagulating respectively 
at about 6o° and at 74 . It is coagulated when shaken with 
ether or when treated with mineral acids and prolonged con- 
tact with alcohol, the precipitate thus resulting being insoluble 
in water. 

Peptones. — The result of the action of gastric and pancreatic 
secretions on albuminoids in the course of digestion. They are 
also produced by contact with animal and vegetable tissues 
(vegetable digestive ferments). They are considered as albumin 
hydrates, and their dehydration reproduces albumin coag- 
ulable by heat. They are soluble in water, insoluble in alco- 
hol, which precipitates them from their solutions. They are 
precipitated by mercuric chloride and nitrate, argentic ni- 
trate, lead acetate, tannic, picric and biliary acids, and by 
phospho-molybdic and phospho-tungstic acids. 

They are diffusible through animal membranes, and are pre- 
pared by digesting freshly precipitated fibrin with an acidulated 
(with HC1) solution of pepsin. When dissolved, the acid solu- 
tion is neutralized with sodic carbonate filtered, boiled and 
the filtrate again acidulated and then precipitated with alcohol, 
after which the result is dried below 30 . 

Globulins, as stated, are coagulable by heat, precipitated by 
alcohol, carbonic acid, and soluble in dilute solutions ( 1 per 
cent.) NaCl. 

Fibrinogen [Metaglobulin) occurs in the blood, chyle, lymph, 
and serous fluids, particularly in hydrocele and pericardial li- 
quids. It generates fibrin with fibrin ferment and coagulates at 
52°-55°. It is insoluble in water or saturated solutions of 
NaCl or magnesic sulphate, but dissolves in dilute solutions of 
neutral salts and the dilute alkaline hydrates and their car- 
bonates. 

Prepared best from hydrocele-fluid, by mixing with about 10 
parts of water, and passing carbonic anhydride through the mix- 
ture for half an hour, or by neutralizing with dilute acetic acid, 
or by precipitating with a mixture of alcohol and ether (3 to 1). 



64 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Fibrinoplastin, Paraglobulin is contained in the serum of 
blood after coagulation, in the pale corpuscles, in lymph, chyle, 
pus, serous fluids, connective tissue, and in the cornea. With 
fibrinogen, in the presence of fibrin-ferment, it forms fibrin, but 
it is not altered by fibrin-ferment alone, though fibrinogen is 
converted by fibrin-ferment into fibrin. 

Fibrinoplastin can be best prepared by diluting serum with 
15 times its bulk of distilled water, adding a few drops of di- 
lute acetic acid (1-4), or the diluted serum may be precipitated 
by an excess of sodic chloride ; also, by passing a stream of 
carbonic anhydride through dilute serum for a half hour. After 
subsiding for 10-12 hours, the fine granular precipitate is 
washed with carbonic-acid water. 

Myosin, muscle-fibrin. Muscle juice is a yellowish, opales- 
cent, distinctly alkaline liquid, which coagulates at ordinary 
temperature, forming a jelly separating into myosin and acid- 
serum. The separation can be readily effected by addition of 
very dilute acids or solutions of NaCl stronger than 10 per 
cent. 

Vitellin, a white, granular substance, from the yolk of egg, 
very soluble in solutions of NaCl, and not precipitated by ex- 
cess, coagulates between 70 and 8o° ; soluble in dilute HC1 
(1 in 1 odd) and weak alkalies; is precipitated by alcohol. Pre- 
pared by treating yolk of egg with water and ether as long as 
they are rendered yellow. The residue is treated with a 10 
per cent, solution of NaCl, which dissolves vitellin, and on 
dilution with water slightly acidulated with acetic acid it is 
precipitated. 

Crystallin, or Globulin, from the crystalline lens. It is not 
precipitated by NaCl, is readily precipitated by alcohol, differs 
from fibrinoplastin by causing no coagulation with fibrin fer- 
ment; prepared by triturating the crystalline lens with washed 
sand, and dissolving the albuminoids from this with water. To 
separate paraglobulin pass a current of carbonic anhydride 
through the filtered liquid. 

Acid albumin (Syntonin, Albumose, Parapeptone). — It is a 
white gelatinous substance insoluble in water and sodic chlo- 
ride solutions, readily soluble in very dilute HC1 and dilute 
alkaline hydrates. It is precipitated when neutralized in the 



ALBUMINOIDS OR PROTEIN BODIES. 6$ 

presence of sodic or potassic phosphates, but not affected by 
boiling. It yields a precipitate with HN0 3 dissolving with an 
intense yellow color on heating. A purple violet color appears 
when a few drops of sodic hydrate solution are added to acid 
albumin, followed by a little dilute cupric sulphate solution. 
With Millon's reagent, in the absence of sodic chloride, it gives a 
red color. To make an acid albumin, treat serum or egg albu- 
men with HO, leave stand until blue color appears, then dilute 
with twice its volume of water. The precipitate is dissolved 
in water, neutralized with sodic carbonate, and the resulting 
precipitate washed with water. Syntonin is made by treating 
muscles with \ per cent, solution of HO. The filtered solution 
is saturated with sodic carbonate, and the precipitate washed 
with water. 

Alkali albumin is present in blood corpuscles, blood serum, 
chyle, muscle, pancreas, nerve tissue, lens and cornea. Alkali 
albumin contains no sulphur. It is not coagulable by boiling. 
On being neutralized, albumen is precipitated. Alkali albumin 
is made by treating egg albumen with potassic hydrate, having 
first pressed the egg albumen through a muslin strainer. Enough 
of the alkaline hydrate should be added to cause the formation 
of a fine jelly, which is cut up, tied up in gauze, and well washed 
with water. 

Casein, an albuminoid, found in milk, is considered by some 
as alkali albumin, but it contains sulphur and is coagulated by 
rennet. It is not coagulated by boiling but precipitated by 
many acids, in the excess of which it is soluble. Calcic chlo- 
ride, or magnesic sulphate, on boiling with casein, separates it 
from its solutions. On standing for some time, casein is con- 
verted into fat. To separate casein from milk, the latter should 
be diluted with ten volumes of water, and precipitated with 
acetic or hydrochloric acid, after which a current of carbonic 
anhydride is to be passed through it, filtered, and the coagulum 
washed first with alcohol, then with ether. Casein from human 
milk is best precipitated with magnesic sulphate to saturation 
at 30 C.j then treated with alcohol and ether, and the magne- 
sic sulphate finally separated by dialysis. 

Fibrin, a white elastic substance, insoluble in water, and di- 
lute solutions of Nad. It swells up in dilute acids, more so 



66 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

than in alkaline solutions, and dissolves slowly in them. Thus 
obtained, it is coagulable by heat, and the coagulum can be 
dissolved in pepsin solutions. At 35 ° to 40 it is somewhat 
soluble in solutions of potassic nitrate and in 10 percent. NaCl 
and NaS0 4 solutions, the solutions being coagulable by heat, 
acids, and alcohol. With strong HC1 it forms a violet-colored 
solution. With KHO, it forms ammonia and potassic sulphide. 
Guaiacum paper is turned blue by being immersed in a solution 
of hydrogen peroxide containing fibrin. It is obtained by 
stirring fresh blood thoroughly, and washing the coagulum 
well with water, then with alcohol and finally with ether. It 
can also be obtained by treating hydrocele fluid with blood 
ferment. Blood ferment is readily made by digesting a washed 
blood clot in an 8 per cent, solution of sodic chloride and fil- 
tering. 

Coagulated albumins are the products of egg or serum 
albumen, which have been exposed to heat, or of the globulins 
or fibrin when suspended in water, and dissolved by saline solu- 
tions and then coagulated under the same circumstances, or by 
the action of alcohol on these bodies. Two forms are recog- 
nized, Metalbumin and Paralbumin, of which the latter is of 
pathological interest, as occurring in ovarian cysts. 

Amyloid Substance. Lardacein. A white amorphous sub- 
stance of pathological origin found in the brain, prostate, liver, 
spleen, kidneys and walls of bloodvessels. It is insoluble in 
water, alcohol, ether, dilute acids and alkaline carbonates. It 
is not dissolved by gastric juice at ordinary temperature. 
Soluble in strong HC1, from which it is precipitated as syntonin 
on addition of water. Boiled with dilute H 2 S0 4 it dissolves 
with a red color, and is decomposed by strong H 2 S0 4 into 
leucin and tyrosin. It dissolves in alkaline hydrates. Iodine 
stains it reddish-brown; iodized zinc chloride, red coloration; 
stained with iodine, and H 2 S0 4 added, it gives a blue or 
violet color. Aniline violet stains it reddish-pink. With Mil- 
Ion's reagent it gives a red color and the characteristic 
xanthoproteic reaction. 

To extract lardacein from an affected organ the vessels are 
removed as much as possible, the organ diminuted and washed 
in water and boiled, the residue is treated with alcohol and 



ALBUMINOIDS OR PROTEIN BODIES. 6j 

then with ether, after that it is boiled in alcohol acidulated 
with HO. Treat then with gastric juice at 40 until no more 
peptone or albuminoid comes off. The residue is then again 
boiled with alcohol acidulated with HO and washed with 
water when pure lardacein remains. 

As Protein derivatives leucin and tyrosin deserve mention 
here. • 

Leucin or amido-caproic acid C 6 H 13 N0 2 belongs to the 
amido-acids of the fatty series; it is found in the pancreas, 
spleen, thymus, salivary glands, lungs and brain. It is formed by 
decomposition of albumen and nitrogenized animal substances, 
on heating them with strong acids or alkalies, or by trypsic 
digestion or decomposition ; it is also synthetically obtained. 
Cheese on decomposition yields leucin. It is frequently 
accompanied by tyrosin in urine. It occurs in shining 
lamellae, is fatty to the touch, insoluble in ether and chloro- 
form, soluble in acids and alkalies, and combines with the salts 
of lead and silver. It sublimes unchanged, with the odor of 
amylamine, and condenses in woolly masses of thin rhombic 
plates, grouped in rosettes. It forms easily soluble salts with 
HO and H 2 So 4 and crystallizes from alcohol in crystals resem- 
bling cholesterin or in groups of needles radiating from a 
centre. It is sparingly soluble in cold, readily so in hot water. 
It can be detected in the urine by treating the residue after 
evaporation with boiling alcohol from which it crystallizes 
on cooling, when it can be recognized with the microscope. 
Another way is to treat urine with basic lead acetate, filter, 
and treat filtrate with H 2 S in excess; the lead sulphide is sepa- 
rated by filtration, and the filtrate evaporated over the water 
bath, when leucin and tyrosin will crystallize out. To separate 
the two treat with boiling alcohol, in which leucin is soluble 
but tyrosin not. 

Tyrosin C 9 H n N0 3 properly belongs to the amido acids of the 
aromatic series. It generally accompanies leucin in animal 
tissues, and is derived as decomposition product from proteids 
by oxidation; it has also been obtained synthetically. It 
occurs in long, fine, white, silky needles, grouped in rosettes 
or stellate bundles if obtained from water or ammoniacal solu- 
tions. It is sparingly soluble in cold, more so in hot water and 



68 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

is almost insoluble in alcohol. When heated it turns brown 
and is decomposed, giving off an odor of phenol, but does not 
sublime. A watery solution boiled with Millon's reagent gives 
a red color and if concentrated a dark red precipitate. 

COLLAGENS. 

Though allied to albuminoids, these do not yield syntonin 
when treated with acids or dilute bases. When dissolved in 
hot water they solidify in jellies on cooling. The principal 
members of this group are ossein, gelatin and chondrin, while 
mucin and elastin are allied thereto. 

Ossein is the collagen of the bones and is probably identical 
with that of the other tissues. When dried bone is treated with 
10 per cent. HC1, the calcic salts are dissolved and the ossein 
remains. By boiling with water it is changed into gelatin. It 
is dissolved by alkalies. 

Gelatin is the collagen of white connective tissues converted 
by the action of boiling water. It is amorphous, translucent, 
yellowish, almost colorless and tasteless, swells up in cold 
water and dissolves in hot water, cooling into a jelly. It is 
insoluble in alcohol and ether, but soluble in warm glycerin. 
It is decomposed by putrefaction, yielding leucin, glycosin, 
ammonia and fatty acids, but no tyrosin. By the action of 
HC1 or pepsin it is rendered diffusible. It yields leucin if 
boiled with KHO neutralized with H 2 S0 4 evaporated and 
extracted with boiling alcohol. Mercuric and platinic chlo- 
rides, tannic acid, alcohol and chlorine water precipitate gelatin, 
but it is not precipitated by alum. 

Chondrin is obtained from the cartilages by boiling, also 
from Cliondrogen by boiling this with water. The cornea 
also yields chondrin. It is a hard transparent yellowish sub- 
stance, insoluble in alcohol and ether, swelling up in cold and 
dissolving in hot water and alkaline solutions. It forms jelly 
on cooling from its watery solution. Decomposed by H 2 S0 4 
it yields leucin, but almost no tryosin or glycosin. On being 
boiled for some time with HC1 or H 2 S0 4 , or when digested 
with gastric juice, it yields a substance resembling acid albumin 
and a nitrogenous body, chondroglacose, reducing the alkaline 
cupric solution. By oxidizing agents it is changed into 



COLORING BODIES. 69 

gelatin. Chondrin is precipitated by dilute mineral acids, the 
precipitate being soluble in excess. Tannic acid produces 
opalescence but no precipitate. Alum yields a precipitate with 
chondrin soluble in excess. 

Mucin, classed with the albuminoids, contains no sulphur and 
exists in mucus, saliva, bile also in the swelling of mixcedema, 
etc. It is a yellowish viscid substance, swells up in water 
without dissolving, soluble in dilute HC1 (5 per cent.), in 
pancreatic juice, alkaline solutions; and insoluble in alcohol, 
ether, dilute acetic acid and gastric juice, and is not coagulated 
by heat. It gives a red color with Millon's reagent, and gives 
the xanthoproteic reaction, 

Elastin is a brittle yellowish substance obtained from yel- 
low elastic tissue. Soaked in dilute acetic acid it is elastic and 
fibrous. It contains no sulphur and is soluble with brown color 
in KHO solution which when neutralized with H^SOi yields 
a precipitate with tannic acid; with HN0 3 or H 2 S0 4 it dis- 
solves if warmed, and yields leucin but no tyrosin. With Mil- 
lon's reagent it gives a red color. 

Keratin the basis for epidermal growths such as hair, nails, 
horns, etc. It belongs to this class, though probably a com- 
plex of different other chemically defined bodies. It contains 
sulphur to a large extent, and loosely combined. It is insol- 
uble in alcohol and ether, soluble in alkalies, swells up in boiling 
water. With boiling dilute H 2 S0 4 or alkaline hydrates it 
yields aspartic and other volatile fatty acids and both leucin 

and tyrosin. 

COLORING BODIES. 

These are bodies to which organs, tissues, or liquids owe 
their characteristic color. 

Haemoglobin (Haemato-globulin, Hsemato-crystallin, Cru- 
orin, Erythrocruorin). A crystalline substance of complex com- 
position, containing iron, and forms the greatest part of the 
solids of the red blood corpuscle. It exists as oxy-haemo- 
globin and haemoglobin (reduced haemoglobin). These differ 
in color, the former being scarlet red and the latter purplish. 
They are distinguished by their absorption spectra, which in 
the former are two bands in D and E, while the latter shows 
only one broad band between D and E. It is insoluble in 



yO APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

alcohol and ether, soluble in water and in alkaline solutions, 
and crystallizes in prisms or rhombic plates. It is not diffus- 
ible ; in its solutions it is decomposed on boiling, and reacts 
feebly acid. It gives the protein reactions ; alcohol and acids 
precipitate and decompose it. Nitric and nitrous oxides unite 
with haemoglobin, also H 2 S. Treated with dilute acid it splits 
into globulin and a ferruginous pigment hcematin (q.v.). 

Blood tests. — If to old oil of turpentine a little tincture of 
guaiacum is added, and to this a few drops of blood, a blue 
color will result. On the dry stain, it can be detected by wash- 
ing it with water, adding a few drops of ammonia which will not 
affect the color ; on boiling the washings will turn turbid, which 
disappears on the addition of a drop or two of KHO, the solution 
appearing green with transmitted and red with reflected light. 

Haematin, a derivative from haemoglobin, is a bluish-black 
amorphous substance insoluble in water and alcohol, but sol- 
uble in alkalies and their carbonates. It exists both in an oxi- 
dized and reduced condition. Its alkaline solution gives an 
absorption band at D of the spectrum which increases in with 
concentration towards C and E. The reduction of oxyhemo- 
globin furnishes an intermediate product, the hcemochromogen 
of Hoppe-Seyler, which is probably nothing more than reduced 
haematin, also giving a distinct absorption band in the spec- 
trum. In acid solutions haematin soon decomposes into hcema- 
toporphyrin. 

Haemin, a crystalline bluish-black or dark -brown body of 
metallic appearance, considered a haematin chloride, soluble in 
HC1 and H 2 S0 4 also in alkalies, and alkaline carbonates. 

BILIARY PIGMENTS. 

In the fresh normal human bile bilirubin is undoubtedly the 
only pigment present, while the others must be consided as de- 
composition products present in bile or biliary calculi. 

Bilirubin, C 16 H 18 N 2 O a (Bilpliaein Bilifulvin CholepyrrJiiri), is 
an orange-yellow amorphous body or reddish-brown crystalline 
substance considered as probably identical with hcematoidin, the 
blood-crystals from old extravasations. In its free state it is 
found in the bile, and in combination with alkaline earths, in 
hepatic calculi. It is, in its free state, soluble in chloroform, 



URINARY PIGMENTS. 7 1 

benzole and carbon disulphide, but in its alkaline combinations 
it is not. It combines with soda, lime, baryta, etc. Treated 
with a mixture of HN0 3 and H 2 S0 4 it turns first green, then 
blue, violet, red and yellow. An alcoholic, ethereal, or chloro- 
form solution of bilirubin to which is added an alcoholic 
bromine solution (5 per cent.) or 20 per cent, solutions of 
chloric or iodic acids is turned, first green, then blue, violet, 
reddish-yellow, and is finally decolorized. 

Biliverdin, C 16 H 18 N 2 4 , a green amorphous powder, derived 
from an alkaline solution of bilirubin on standing or by the 
action of light. It is insoluble in water, ether, or chloroform, 
but soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and alkaline solutions. It 
gives the same play of colors with HN0 3 as bilirubin. 

Hydrobilirubin [Urobilin, Stercobilin) C 32 H i0 N 4 O 7 found in 
bile and urine, but principally in faeces. An amorphous dark- 
brown substance, soluble in alkalies, acetic and sulphuric acids, 
alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Its solutions, which are reddish, 
do not show play of colors with HN0 3 . 

Bilifusin (C 16 H 20 N 2 OJ, a black substance obtained from old 
hepatic calculi in small quantity. It is sparingly soluble in 
water, ether, and chloroform, soluble in alcohol and alkaline 
solutions. 

Biliprasin (QgH^N^), from human gallstones and icteric 
urine. A black shining substance, insoluble in water and ether, 
soluble in alcohol and alkaline solutions. 

URINARY PIGMENTS. 

Urobilin [Hydrobilirubin), is already described above under 
the latter name. 

Urochrome, claimed byThudicum and Charles as a distinct 
amorphous dark -yellow body, soluble in water but less so in 
alcohol, ether, dilute acids, and alkalies. It is decomposed 
by boiling with dilute acids into Uromelanin, Uropittin and 
Omicholin. 

Indican. Uroxanthin [indigogen) a substance occurring in 
normal urine in smaller, but in larger quantities in pathological 
urine, especially in cancer of the liver, cholera, Addison's dis- 
ease, etc., etc. It gives urine an intense yellow color. If pres- 
ent in larger quantities it gives a white pulverulent precipitate 



,~ 2 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

when boiled with HO, and on addition of a few drops sat- 
urated solution of chloride of lime it turns red, violet, green 
and blue. Normal amounts of indican will give on addition of 
30-40 drops of urine to strong HC1, a red, violet or blue color, 
which will be intensified by addition of a few drops of HXO^ 
For its quantitative estimation see Urinary Analysis. 

Melanin, a black pigment occurring in the choroid, in the 
skin of the colored races, in the hair, the lungs and tumors. It 
is normally in granular form in the cells, but pathologically in 
flat rhombic plates with sharp angles. It contains iron, and in 
this respect is not unlike haematin, from which it is probably 
derived. 

DIGESTIVE FERMENTS. 

These are bodies influencing albuminoids or carbohydrates 
in a manner to change their chemical character, and render 
them diffusible instead of colloids. While there have been 
various ferments described as present in the animal organism, 
the principal ones are ptyalin, pepsin and pancreatin. 

Ptyalin is a substance contained in the saliva, possessing the 
property of converting starch into sugar. Though not an 
albuminoid, it bears close analogy to them. It resembles 
diastase in its property and characters, and the latter is usually 
substituted for it. When extracted from the salivary glands by 
glycerin and precipitated by alcohol it forms a white amor- 
phous powder, precipitable by the lead acetates, but not by 
nitric or tannic acid, nor the mercuric or platinic chloric 
Its pow^r of converting starch into sugar is greatest at 35 °— 
40 ; if heated above 60 c it becomes inactive. Diastase ex- 
tracted with water and ether from bre east and precipi- 
tated by alcohol, or even in a watery infusion from malted 
barley, can, like ptyalin, convert boiled starch rapidly into 
sugar, but does so most actively at 6o°— 70 . 

Pepsin, the well-known digestive principle of the gastric 
juice. It is a nitrogenous body and gives no albumin reaction, 
a yellow or grayish amorphous powder, soluble in water, 
glycerin and acids, but insoluble in alcohol. From its watery 
solution it is precipitable by the lead acetates. It is devoid of 
peptogenic action unless in acid solutions. It changes under 
such conditions at from 37° to 38° albuminoids, collagens, e: 



ORGANIC AMINES AND AMIDES. 73 

into diffusible peptones, which by L. Herman were considered 
as hydrated products thereof, but it does not act on keratin and 
carbohydrates. While small portions of sodic chloride favor 
its peptogenic action, it is precipitated by larger quantities 
thereof from its solutions. For its preparation its solubility in 
glycerin is taken advantage of, and from these solutions it is pre- 
cipitated by the addition of absolute alcohol. 

Pancreatin : The active substances in the pancreatic secre- 
tion are claimed to be three or four, according to the distinctive 
characters they exhibit. On extracting a pancreas which has 
been treated with alcohol by glycerin and precipitating the 
glycerin solution with alcohol, a substance is obtained which 
has been given the name of pancreatin, and is claimed to pos- 
sess all the functions exhibited by the pancreatic juice. Its 
principal component, capable of changing proteids into peptones 
in neutral and alkaline media is trypsin. Another is said to be 
the ferment curdling the casein of milk. A third, similar to 
ptyalin, and by Roberts termed pancreatic diastase, converts 
starch and glycogen into sugar and dextrin, while the emulsive 
ferment is capable of emulsifying fats and partially saponifying 
them. The pancreatic peptones obtained from trypsin are pre- 
cipitated by acids. 

ORGANIC AMINES AND AMIDES. 

Neurine or Choline, Bilineurine, C 5 H 15 NOo, a decomposition 
product of lecithin, obtained from the decomposition of prota- 
gon and lecithin in the brain, yolk of eggs and bile. It is a thick, 
syrupy liquid, soluble in water and alcohol. It prevents coagu- 
lation of albumen, redissolving this and fibrin when coagulated. 
It is alkaline and forms crystallizable salts with HC1. 

Urea, Carbamide , CON 2 H.t, generally considered as an amide 
of carbonic anhydride. 

CCk tjq Carbonic acid. CO \ y^y\ Carbamide. 

It is isomeric with ammonium cyanate, 

CN (CO)) 

I = H 2 VN 2 , 

ONH 4 Hj 

6 



74 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

which is readily converted into it. It is found in, the animal 
fluids and organs and is present in the blood normally in about 
^-^ per cent., but in Bright's disease is found as high as ten 
times that amount. It forms the principal excretive substance 
of the urine, being present therein as high as from 2 to 4 per 
cent. It occurs in long flattened prisms, from alcohol in four- 
sided prisms, transparent with oblique ends. It is soluble in 
water and alcohol and melts at 130 , decomposing at higher 
temperatures. It forms compounds with acids, bases and salts. 
When a cold concentrated solution is treated with HN0 3 crys- 
tals of urea nitrate, CON 2 H 4 HN0 3 , are formed. If treated 
with oxalic acid a urea oxalate (CON 2 H 4 ) 2 C 2 H 2 4 , results. 
Mercuric nitrate forms compounds with urea, as also mercuric 
chloride. 

To prepare it treat urine evaporated to a syrupy consistency 
with HNO3, allow this to cool, then mix with baric carbonate 
and hydrate to saturation, precipitate these with carbonic anhy- 
dride, filter and crystallize from alcohol. When treated with 
alkaline hypochlorites or hypobromites urea is decomposed, 

CON 2 H 4 + 3C10Na = CO, + 2H 2 + 2N + 3ClNa, 

carbonic anhydride and nitrogen being liberated. With min- 
eral acids and alkaline hydrates urea is also decomposed, car- 
bonic anhydride and ammonia being liberated. For quantita- 
tive estimation of urea see Urinary Analysis. 

COMPOUND UREAS. 

Uric Acid,C 5 H 4 N 4 3 m.w. 1^8, found in small quantities in 
the urine, blood, spleen and other organs. It is a white crys- 
talline powder devoid of taste and smell. The crystals are of 
various forms ; as crystallized from urine they form rectangular 
or rhombic plates. They also appear as rhombic prisms, loz- 
enge and dumb-bell shaped or stellate ; as deposited from 
urine they are always colored. It is almost insoluble in water, 
alcohol and ether ; readily soluble in cold H 2 S0 4 , from which 
it is precipitated unchanged on dilution. It is also soluble in 
HNO3, also in NaHO and KHO; also in the alkaline solu- 
tions of lactates, acetates, carbonates, phosphates and borates 
to form neutral urates. It is decomposed by heat. By the 



UREIDS FROM URIC ACID. 75 

action upon it of cold HN0 3 alloxan, alloxantin and urea 
are formed. On heating the mixture the former are changed 
into parabanic acid. When treated with HN0 3 to solution and 
NH 4 HO added to this and slightly heated, a fine purple color 
oi murexid or ammonium purpurate is developed (murexid test). 
In very small quantities the vapor of ammonia will answer. If 
treated with NaHO or KHO, instead of NH.HO in the forego- 
ing reaction, violet or blue will appear. If a solution of sodic 
hypochlorite is added cautiously to a solution of uric acid, a 
rose-red color is produced, which is extinguished by an excess 
of the hypochlorite. 

To detect uric acid in serum of blood or serous liquids, they 
are evaporated after acidulation with acetic acid, and a thread 
or fibre is immersed in the concentrated liquid and allowed to 
cool, when crystals of uric acid will adhere to the thread or 
fibre, and can be detected microscopically. As already stated, 
the alkalies dissolve uric acid and form salts with it. These 
are usually found in urinary sediments and calculi. As uric 
acid is bibasic it forms both acid and neutral' salts, of which the 
principal ones are : 

Amnionic urate, acid, C 5 H 3 N 4 3 (NH 4 ), sparingly soluble in 
water, soluble in warm HC1, from which the acid crystallizes on 
cooling. 

Sodic urate, acid, C 5 H 3 N 4 3 Na, occurs in urinary sediments 
and calculi of gouty persons. 

Calcic urate, acid (C^HgN^O^Ca, is found in urinary sedi- 
ments and calculi as chalkstones. 

UREIDS FROM URIC ACID. 

Alloxantin (mesoxalyl-tartronyldiurea), C & H 4 N 4 7 , forming 
rhombic tables, giving a transient blue coloration with ammo- 
nia and ferric chlorides. It forms a violet precipitate with 
baryta water and is prepared by treating uric acid with dilute 
HNO s . 

Alloxan (mesoxalylurea), CJrT 2 N 2 4 , a derivative of the former, 
obtained by treating uric acid with cold HN0 3 . It forms color- 
less crystals soluble in water and turns red on exposure. 

Murexid (ammonic purpurate), C 8 H 8 N 6 6 , shining green 



y6 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

four-sided tables, giving a red solution with water, turned blue 
by KHO. 

Parabanic acid (oxalylurea), C 3 H 2 N 2 3 , derived by oxida- 
tion of uric acid or alloxan by hot nitric acid. It comes in six- 
sided prisms, of acid taste, soluble in water and alcohol. 

Allantoin (glyoxyldiurea), C 4 H 6 N 4 2f found in the allantoid 
fluid, in small amounts in urine of the foetus and infant and 
after the use of tannic acid. It comes in colorless prisms 
slightly soluble in cold, more so in warm water. Boiling 
HN0 3 decomposes it into urea and allantoic acid, and alkaline 
hydrates into oxalic acid and ammonia. 

Related to uric acid are the following : 

Xanthin, C 5 H 4 N 4 2 , an ingredient of certain rare forms of 
urinary calculi, also found in small quantities in urine and in cer- 
tain glands and the brain; artificially prepared from hypoxan- 
thin, also from guanin. It is a white amorphous substance, 
soluble in boiling water, alcohol and ether. It is precipitated 
by acids forming crystalline salts. If dissolved in HN0 3 and 
evaporated it gives a yellow residue, turning reddish-yellow 
with KHO and violet on heating. 

Hypoxanthin, Sarkiii, C 5 H 4 N 4 0, found in the muscles, the 
spleen, pancreas, thymus, in the liver of yellow atrophy and in 
the blood and urine of leucocythaemia. It is closely related 
to uric acid and xanthin, and can be formed from either by 
reduction. 

Guanin, C 5 H 5 N 5 0. Originally found in guano and also pres- 
ent in the pancreas and liver. It is a white or yellowish amor- 
phous substance, odorless and tasteless, soluble in acids and 
alkalies, with which it forms compounds insoluble in water, 
alcohol and ether. Evaporated with HN0 3 it gives a yellow 
residue, turning dark yellow with KHO and NH 4 HO. 

Carnin, C 7 H S N 4 3 , a chalky-looking body, in microscopic 
crystals; sparingly soluble in cold, soluble in hot water, insol- 
uble in alcohol and ether. It is obtained from extracts of meat, 
but not from fresh meat. It forms a hydrochlorate with HC1, 
crystallizing in needles. 



AMIDO-ACIDS — BILIARY ACIDS. J*J 



AMIDO-ACIDS. 

Glycocin {glycin, glycocol, amido-acetic acid), C 2 H.N0 2 , a 
sweet substance derived from gelatin when treated with dilute 
H 2 S04. It is synthetically prepared by the action of mono- 
chloracetic acid on ammonia. It is found as compound with 
amine bases in the liver. It is also found in the urine with ben- 
zoic acid as 

Hippuric acid, benzoylglycocin, benzoylamido-acetic acid, 
C 9 H 9 N0 3 , a glycocin in which one atom, H, is displaced by 
benzoyl (C 6 H 5 CO). Principally found in the urine of herbi- 
vora, but also present in the urine of omnivora. It forms white 
needles or colorless prisms, is odorless, bitter, sparingly soluble 
in cold water, and less so when acidulated with HC1 ; boiling 
water and alcohol dissolve it. It reduces an alkaline solution 
of cupric sulphate. When heated it gives an odor of bitter 
almonds ; also when boiled with nitric acid ; it is distinguishable 
from benzoic acid by its non-solubility in ether. With ferric 
chloride it gives a brown precipitate, and heated with lime, 
benzene and ammonia. From urine it can be recovered by 
evaporation, acidulation with HC1, then crystallizing and purify- 
ing crystals with cold water and alcohol. 

BILIARY ACIDS. 

The salts of two acids are found in the bile; respectively, 
glycocholic and taurocholic acids, which form the principal 
hepatic secretions ; they are found as alkaline, principally sodic 
compounds, and as the products of fatty acids may be viewed as 
soaps, soluble with water and emulsifying fats and oils. They 
are both dextrogyrous. 

Glycocholic acid, QgH^NOg, is found in human bile and in 
small quantities in the blood and urine of jaundice. It crystal- 
lizes in transparent needles, is sparingly soluble in water, soluble 
in warm water and alcohol, almost insoluble in ether. Its re- 
action is acid and of sweetish bitter taste. With baric hydrate it 
splits into cholic acid and glycocin. It is soluble in H 2 SO it 
from which it is precipitated on dilution. It is monobasic, 
forming compounds with alkalies, alkaline earths, silver and 
lead. Its alcoholic solution is dextrogyrous = 29 . • 



yS APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Glycocholic acid, C 26 H 43 N0 6 , can be decomposed into cholic 
acid, C 24 H 40 O 5 , and glycocin, C 2 H 5 N0 2 , and taurocholic acid, 
C 26 H 45 NS0 7 , into cholic acid, C 24 H 40 O 5 , and taurin, C 2 H 7 NS0 3 . 

Sodic glycocholate, C 26 H 42 N0 6 Na, is found in bile, crys- 
tallizes in stellate needles, is soluble in water, but less so in 
alcohol, insoluble in ether, and is dextrogyrous = 25. J°. 

Taurocholic acid, C 26 H 45 N0 7 S, is also found as sodic tauro- 
cholate in the bile. In crystalline form it comes in silky 
needles, rapidly deliquescing, gradually changing into an 
amorphous mass. It is soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble 
in ether, is very bitter, and dextrogyrous in alcohol == 24.5 , in 
water 21.05 . It is very unstable, decomposing into cholic 
acid and taurin. It is not found in the urine of jaundice. 
Taurocholates are neutral, soluble in water and alcohol and 
crystallize with ether. Like glycocholates, they dissolve choles- 
terin and emulsify fats and oils. 

Cholic acid, C 24 H 40 O 5 , is a product of decomposition of the 
above two acids. Is said to occur in the intestines and faeces 
and in the urine of jaundice. It crystallizes in different forms 
from different solvents. Is slightly soluble in water, but readily 
so in alcohol and ether. 

Tests for Biliary Acids. — When treated with H 2 S0 4 they 
form a yellow solution, increasing in intensity and having a 
green fluorescence. 

Their solutions in water on addition of a small quantity of 
cane sugar and H 2 S0 4 at a temperature not exceeding 6o° 
gives a distinct cherry-red color, gradually changing to dark 
purple (Pettenkofer reaction). Drechsel proposes substitution 
of syrupy phosphoric acid for H 2 S0 4 to avoid the charring of 
the sugar. It is to be borne in mind that many other products 
of the animal organism give the same reaction, but the spec- 
troscopic examination of biliary acid solutions shows an ab- 
sorption band between D and E and a second on the red side 
of F. 

Taurin, C 2 H 7 NS0 3 , the decomposition product of tauro-cholic 
acid, is rich in sulphur, which by heating is apparent as sulphur 
dioxide. It crystallizes in transparent six-sided prisms, is not 
decomposed by boiling with dilute acids and alkalies, but de- 
composed by nitrous acid. 



CARBOHYDRATE- 

Other amido acids are : 

Kreatin. C t H 9 N 3 2 , a normal constituent of the liquid of 
muscles, brain, blood and amniotic fluid, crystallizes in trans- 
parent, colorless, oblique rhombic prisms, and when anhydrous 
hite and opaque. It is sparingly soluble in cold, more 
so in hot water, moderately soluble in alcohol, and insol- 
uble in ether. Upon heating for some time, or by the action of 
strong acids, it is converted into kreatinin. Barium hydrate 
decomposes it into sarkosin and urea. 

Kreatinin. C 4 H T N 3 0. — As already stated this is a product of 
dehydration of Kreatin, and normally found in urine, amniotic 
fluid, blood, and muscles. It is increased in fevers, and de- 
creased in anaemia, diabetes, and Bright's disease. Its crvstals 
are oblique rhombic prisms, soluble in water and hot alcohol, 
alkaline of reaction displacing ammonia from its salts, and 
forms double salts with platinum, zinc, etc. It can be precipi- 
tated from the urine by zinc chlori : 

Cystin C ri-XSCX. found in the kidneys and urine of children 
and young people. It is sometimes found in urinary calculi. It 
forms transparent, hexagonal, sometimes rhombohedral. plates. 
It is soluble in mineral acids, oxalic acid and alkaline hydrates, 
precipitable from the former by ammonic carbonate, and from 
the latter by acetic acid. It is insoluble in alcohol, water and 
ether. Burns with green flame and fetid odor. If heated with 
sodic hydrate on silver it gives a sulphur stain. Its diluted 
alkaline solution gives a rich violet color with potassic nitro- 
prusside. 

CARBOHYDRATES. 

Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, containing 
six carbon atoms or multiples thereof, and the hydrogen and 
: xy gen atoms in the same proportion as in water. They cor. sist 
of three groups, the members of which are isomeric, respectively 
amyloses.^QH^Og); saccharoses, C^H^On; glucoses, QH 

Starch, amy lose ^ n QH 10 O 5 ), not found normally in the human 
organism, but one of its most important foods, is a 
der, consisting of the fecules of various plants, tubers and 
seeds. They differ in appearance according to the plants or 
parts thereof from which they are derived ; all, however, have 



80 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

a central spot termed hilum with concentric lines according to 
the layers surrounding it. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, 
ether, and cold acids. If boiled with water the granules burst 
and form a gelatinous mass, soluble in water and termed hy- 
drated, which can also be effected by cold dilute alkaline solu- 
tions. As such it is dextrogyrous = 216 . It is a colloid, and 
to be absorbed must be converted into sugar, which is partly 
effected byptyalin and pancreatic diastase. This is also accom- 
plished by malt diastase and an infusion of malt containing it, 
as well as by warm solutions of HC1 and oxalic acid, which 
change it into dextrin and glucose. A solution of hydrated 
starch is precipitated by tannic acid as a yellow precipitate 
soluble by heat. Free iodine in solution produces a deep blue 
color with all forms of starch disappearing on heating and 
reappearing on cooling. 

Dextrin, a gum derivative of starch and intermediate between 
it and glucose, exists in the blood and organs of carnivora and 
herbivora. It is produced by heating starch to 175 , or boiling 
it with dilute H 2 S0 4 at 90 , or by partial action of diastase upon 
starch. It is a whitish-yellow powder, readily soluble in water, 
insoluble in alcohol, and is dextrogyrous = 138. 88°. With 
HNO3 it yields oxalic acid on boiling. With iodine it gives a 
red color, and when boiled with dilute HC1 it gives the glucose 
tests. 

Glycogen a yellowish-white body discovered by Claude Ber- 
nard in the liver. It has been met with in the blood and almost 
all organs. It is inodorous and tasteless, amorphous, and in- 
soluble in alcohol and ether. With water it swells up and forms 
an opalescent solution on heating, which is dextrogyrous to 
about three times the extent of grape sugar. In its character it 
much resembles dextrin, and, like it, forms glucose with dilute 
acids, ptyalin diastase, pancreatic diastase, and besides, with the 
glycogen ferment of the liver and tissues, and soluble albumi- 
noids. With potassic-iodide-iodine solution it gives a wine-red 
solution, which disappears on heating and reappears on cooling. 
With dextrin the latter does not take place. It does not reduce 
the alkaline cupric solution, but after boiling with a little HC1, 
©r the action of the above ferments or soluble albuminoids, the 
glucose reaction is readily obtained. 



SACCHAROSES. 8 1 

To prepare glycogen the liver of a freshly killed animal is 
promptly removed, minced and treated repeatedly with boiling 
water. The pulp is then expressed, and the infusion filtered 
through animal charcoal and evaporated to a syrupy consistency, 
and then precipitated with stronger alcohol. The precipitate 
may be purified by repeated precipitations, and finally dried. 
The liver ferment is made by depriving a fresh liver well minced 
first of its water by alcohol, and after removing this by extrac- 
tion with glycerin for several days. The ferment is destroyed 
by boiling. 

SACCHAROSES. 

Saccharose, Cane Sugar, C 12 H 22 O n . — A crystallizable saccha- 
rine substance found in many plants, but most generally derived 
from sugar cane and from sugar beets. As generally found it 
is white and crystalline, forming monoclinic prisms, which 
are larger or smaller according to the time consumed in 
crystallization. Its specific gravity is 1.606, and it dissolves in 
about one-third of its weight of cold water. Its solutions are 
dextrogyrous =73.8°. It forms compounds with alkaline 
earths ; does not reduce alkaline cupric solutions. By the action 
of warm dilute acids it is converted into dextrose and laevulose, 
while sulphuric acid chars it, sulphur dioxide being liberated ; 
glucose is not affected in this manner. Saccharose is not a nor- 
mal, constituent of the animal organism, and after ingestion is 
converted into glucose. It is fermentable only after being con- 
verted. 

Lactose, Milk Sugar, Lactine. — This is only found in the 
lacteal animal secretions, and is a saccharine body, specific 
gravity I.53, crystallizing in transparent prisms. It does not 
impart as sweet a taste as the other sugars, and is soluble only 
in six parts of cold water, the solutions being dextrogyrous = 
59. 3 . It is more stable than saccharose, but by boiling with 
acids is converted into galactose. It reduces the alkaline cupric 
solutions and ferments after conversion into galactose. In its 
decomposition with casein it yields lactic acid and butyric acid, 
and by the pancreatic secretions it is changed into galactose. 

Maltose, a saccharine body derived from malt, and also by 
the action of diastase and dilute HC1 upon starch. Its dextro- 



82 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

gyratory power is three times that of glucose. It is ferment- 
able and reduces alkaline cupric solutions. 

GLUCOSES. 

Glucose, Dextrose, Grape sugar, C 6 H 12 6 , a saccharine sub- 
stance largely distributed through the vegetable and animal 
organisms. It is found in the chyle, blood, liver, bile, lungs, 
and elsewhere, and pathologically in the urine, saliva, faeces, and 
sweat. It crystallizes only under very favorable conditions, and 
appears then as warty masses consisting of fine needles, or in 
different forms according to solvent. It dissolves in all propor- 
tions with hot water and in about one-third of cold water, and 
is soluble in alcohol. In taste it is less sweet than cane sugar, 
and is dextrogyrous = 57-6°. It dissolves in H 2 S0 4 without 
change of color, and with alkaline hydrates it turns brown. It 
reduces the alkaline cupric solutions on boiling. A solution of 
indigo slightly alkaline with sodic carbonate, when heated to 
boiling point with a solution of glucose, loses its blue color and 
turns violet and finally yellow, but recovers its blue color on 
cooling and agitation. Bismuth subnitrate, if boiled with a 
solution of glucose slightly alkaline w r ith a little sodic carbon- 
ate, is turned black. Picric acid and an alkaline solution of 
grape sugar will give a deep reddish-brown color. (For quan- 
titative determination of glucose see urinary analysis.) 

Inosit, muscle sugar, is found in the muscle of the heart, also 
in the blood, brain, liver, lungs, kidneys, etc. ; pathologically it 
has been found in hydatid cysts, in the urine of albuminuria 
and diabetes. It crystallizes in monoclinic tables and prisms, 
and from alcohol in lamellae resembling those of cholesterin. 
It is efflorescent, of sweetish taste, is readily soluble in water 
and very little soluble in cold alcohol, and is optically inac- 
tive. It is not changed by dilute acids or alkalies, is not fer- 
mentable, and does not reduce the alkaline cupric solutions. A 
solution acidulated with HN0 3 , and evaporated, if treated with 
ammonia and calcic chloride, produces a rose-pink color. Mer- 
curic nitrate gives a yellow precipitate with it, which turns red 
on heating, red color disappearing on cooling. 



ALCOHOLS. 83 



ALCOHOLS. 



Ethylic alcohol, spirits of wine, C 2 H 5 HO, ethylic hydrate, a 
product of distillation from fermented grain, fruits, and other 
sources, containing glucose subjected to fermentation. It is a 
colorless, volatile liquid of characteristic odor, hot taste, of 
various specific gravities according to the amount of absolute 
alcohol, and has a specific gravity 0.7938. It burns readily, and 
boils at 78.5 °. It is miscible in all proportions with water 
without causing turbidity, and coagulates albuminous substances. 
When heated either with potassic hydrate or H 2 S0 4 it should 
not darken. With H 2 S0 4 and a dilute solution (one-third 
per cent) of potassic bichromate a green color is produced. 
Alcohol does not occur in nature as such, nor is it a product or 
part of the animal organism, though as a beverage it is of im- 
portance, and also on account of its physiological effects, and 
its poisonous effects when consumed in large quantities. While 
in dilutions with water it can be determined by its specific 
gravity, when mixed with food or solid ingredients these have 
to be subjected to distillation until exhausted, and the distillate 
after condensation must be determined as before mentioned. 

Glycerin, Propenyl alcohol, C 3 H 5 (HO) 3 , a triatomic alcohol, 
forming a colorless, viscid liquid, of acrid, sweetish taste, spe- 
cific gravity 1.26 at 15 , soluble in all proportions with water 
and alcohol, but insoluble in ether and chloroform. It is very 
hygroscopic, and a good solvent for many substances. Not 
met with in its free state as part of the economy, it is found 
in the intestines as a result of the splitting up of fatty bodies by 
pancreatic action. It is derived from fats and oils, with which 
it forms ethers termed glycerides. 

Cholesterin, Cholesteric-alcohol, C 26 H 43 HO. The only free 
alcohol which is part of the animal organism is a fatty body 
found in the brain, bile, blood, nerves, spleen, and forms the 
principal ingredient of biliary calculi. It is also found in the 
vegetable kingdom as well as in the yolk of egg and pathological 
growths. It exists in its crystalline state either with or without 
water and according to the solvents employed, crystallizes in 
silky needles from benzol, absolute ether or chloroform, or in 
rhombic plates from alcohol. It is soluble in hot alcohol, ether, 



84 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

benzol, acetic acid and glycerin, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, 
and boiling water, and insoluble in cold water, alkalies, and 
dilute acids. Its specific gravity is 1.046; it is laevogyrous = 
3 1.6°. It combines with the volatile fatty acids, and with hot 
HNO3 ^ forms cholesteric acid (C 8 H 10 O 5 ). Treated with a little 
HNO3 an d evaporated a yellow residue is formed, which turns 
brick-red on addition of NH 4 HO, which is not changed by 
KHO. Heated with a mixture of two parts HC1 and one 
of ferric chloride solution it turns violet Heated with a 
little H 2 S0 4 and a little iodine, colors are produced rang- 
ing from violet, blue, green, and yellow to brown. With H 2 S0 4 
it is turned red, turning green on addition of water or chloro- 
form. 

VOLATILE FATTY ACIDS. 

Formic acid, CH 2 2 = C.HO.HO, is found in various organs 
and fluids of the body as well as in the secretions of red ants 
and other insects, also in various plants. It is obtained by the 
oxidation of organic substances, such as sugar, starch, fibrin, 
albumen, etc. It is a colorless liquid, of pungent taste and 
sharp odor, which vesicates the skin, and mixes with water in 
all proportions. 

Acetic acid, Acetyl hydrate, C 2 H 3 O.HO = CH 3 CO.HO, a col- 
orless liquid, solidifying in its strongest form below iy° into an 
ice-like body, glacial acetic acid. It is found in the juice of 
muscles, the spleen, bile and sweat, and the intestinal canal as 
result of fermentation. When the strong acid is brought in con- 
tact with the epiderm it destroys it and vesicates. When heated 
with H 2 SO • it can be recognized by its specific odor. With ferric 
chloride it gives a dark-red color, which is extinguished by 
excess of HC1. 

Propionic acid, C 3 H 6 2 = C 3 H 5 O.HO, a colorless liquid re- 
sembling acetic acid, found sometimes in the perspiration, in 
diabetic urine and intestinal tract, and said to occur in leukaemia 
and the dejections of cholera. 

Butyric acid, C 4 H 7 O.HO, a colorless liquid, of a penetrating 
odor of rancid butter, and acid taste, is found in the sweat, faeces, 
and urine, muscle juice, and in decomposing animal and vege- 
table substances. It occurs pathologically in the stomach, 



GLYCOLLIC SERIES. 85 

urine, blood, fluid of ovarian cysts, and sputa of gangrene of 
the lung, often together with lactic acid. 

Caproic acid, C 6 H n HO. — An oily liquid contained in butter, 
and found in the faeces and perspiration. 

Valerianic acid, C 5 H 9 HO, occurs in several isomeric forms; 
it is an oily, colorless liquid, of penetrating odor, and sharp, acrid 
taste, soluble in alcohol and ether in all proportions, and slightly 
in water. It is often present in the faeces and the perspiration. 

Palmitic acid, Ethalic acid, C 16 H 31 O.HO, a solid, fatty body, 
crystallizing in white needles or scales, without odor or taste, 
insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, fuses at 62 °. 
It is sometimes met with in cheesy tubercles, and in sputa from 
gangrene of lung. 

Stearic acid, C^H^HO. — The most abundant of all fatty 
acids, forming the principal constituent of all animal fats. It 
is a white, odorless, and tasteless body, of scaly, crystalline 
structure, fatty to the touch, soluble in alcohol and ether. It is 
generally found, together with palmitic acid, in oleo-stearates 
but occurs free in the intestinal canal, being separated by pan- 
creatic action. 

GLYCOLLIC SERIES. 

There is only one of these that is of interest for the medical 
chemist, i. e. : 

Lactic acid C 3 H 6 3 , occurs in two, if not three isomeric con- 
ditions. Ethyline or isolactic acid, obtained from lactic acid 
fermentation, as met with in the intestinal canal, some glands, 
and nerve cells ; ethidene or para- also sarco-lactic acid, which 
is still doubtful, claimed to be present in the muscles ; and 
ordinary lactic acid, optically inactive lactic acid, the result of 
lactic fermentation from various sources. A syrupy, colorless 
liquid, of acid taste, specific gravity 1.2 1 2, miscible in all pro- 
portions with water, alcohol, ether, and glycerin. It cannot 
be distilled without decomposition. It is found pathologically 
in the blood of leukaemia and pyaemia, purulent discharges, in 
the urine after phosphorus poisoning, in the saliva of diabetes, 
and in yellow hepatic atrophy. 



86 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 



OXALIC SERIES. 



Oxalic acid (for properties, see " Chemistry of Poisons ") 
exists in the blood only as calcic oxalate, CaC 2 4 , and as 
such in urinary deposits and concreta. It is occasionally 
found in the mucous membrane of the uterus and gall-bladder, 
in the urine of chronic vesical catarrh, and in other catarrhal 
conditions. 

Succinic acid. QH 6 4 , crystallizing in colorless oblique 
rhombic prisms or plates, melts at 180 , and can be sublimed ; 
slightly soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol, little so in 
ether. It occurs in urine after ingestion of asparagus and malic 
acid fruits, in the spleen, thyroid and thymus, and in the fluid 
of hydroceles, hydatid cysts, and hydrocephalus. It forms as 
result of oxidation of the fatty acids. Neutralized with am- 
monia and treated with ferric chloride, it gives a reddish-brown 
flocculent precipitate, soluble in HC1. 

ACRYLIC SERIES. 

Of this, only one is of interest here. 

Oleic acid, C^H^C^HO, a monobasic acid, found in all 
the fats of the body. It is a light yellowish, oily substance, 
specific gravity 0.808, crystallizing at -4 , and melting at 14 . 
It has a characteristic odor and acrid taste, is soluble in alco- 
hol, ether, and benzin, insoluble in water. It absorbs oxygen 
rapidly, and turns yellow with a rancid odor and acid reaction 
in contact with the air, and is decomposed on exposure to heat, 
but can be distilled unchanged with superheated steam. With 
nitrous acid it forms an isomeric elaidic acid. 

GLYCERIDES, 

Palmitin, QH 5 (C 16 H 31 C0 3 , a tripalmitin, crystallizing in 
needles and plates, soluble in ether, fusing at 50 , and solidify- 
ing at 46 . It is one of the principal components of animal fats 
and formed largely in those of vegetable origin. 

Stearin, C 3 H 5 (C^H^CX^, a tristearin. The hardest, fatty 
substance of the body, obtained from animal fats of which 
it forms the principal constituent. It can be crystallized from 



SYLLABUS TO PART III. 8? 

its hot alcoholic solutions in brilliant quadrangular plates. It 
fuses at 68°, and solidifies at 6i°. 

Olein, C 3 H 5 (QgH^O^, a triolein. A colorless, odorless, 
tasteless, oily substance, found in all vegetable and animal fats 
from which it can be separated by first treating the fats with 
boiling alcohol, and freezing and filtering subsequently. It is 
soluble in alcohol and ether, insoluble in water; specific gravity, 
O.92. 

Amongst the glycerides must also be classed : 

Lecithin, a yellowish, white, somewhat crystalline powder, 
hygroscopic and fusible ; soluble in warm ether and alcohol, 
chloroform and benzole ; insoluble in water in which it swells 
up like starch, forming an emulsion precipitable with NaCL 
Dissolved in alcohol and acidulated with HO, it gives a yellow, 
flocculent precipitate with platinic chloride, and a white one 
with cadmic chloride. It is derived from nerve-tissue, brain, 
yolk of egg t semen, blood-corpuscles, serum, milk, bile, etc. 
It can be considered as a glyceride, in which a fatty acid radi- 
cal is displaced by phosphoric acid and neurin added to it. 
The lecithins are very prone to decomposition, yielding neu- 
rine, stearic, palmitic or oleic acids, and glycerophosphoric acid 
(C 3 H 9 P0 6 ). 

Protagon appears to be a glucoside of lecithin. It is found in 
the brain, the white substance of Schwann, in the blood, and 
elsewhere. In its decomposition, it yields glucose and the 
decomposition products of lecithin. It is insoluble in water, 
swelling up in it like lecithin, soluble in warm alcohol and ether, 
and is crystallizable in small fine needles. 

SYLLABUS TO PART III. 

(1.) Test a protein body by the alkaline cupric and xantho- 
proteic test. 

(2.) Prepare serum albumin and egg albumin, and show their 
respective reactions. 

(3.) Make a peptone, and precipitate by alcohol, mercuric 
chloride, tannic or picric acid. 

(4.) Prepare fibrinogen from hydrocele-fluid, also fibrinoplas- 
tin, and produce fibrin by mixing them with blood ferment. 



88 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

(5.) Prepare acid albumin from albumen and from muscle as 
syntonin, and observe its reactions. 

(6.) Make alkali albumin, and show its properties. 

(7.) Make fibrin from blood and with blood ferment from 
hydrocele fluid ; test with guaiac paper and hydrogen peroxide. 

(8.) Show the stain of amyloid substance with iodine and 
anilin violet, also its reaction with Millon's test. 

(9.) Produce leucin, and observe its properties and tests, and 
its differential test from tyrosin. 

(10.) Make a solution of gelatin, and show its precipitation 
by tannin and absence of precipitate with alum. 

(11.) Show haemoglobin test with spectroscope, also test for 
reduced haemoglobin, also that of haematin. Show guaiac test 
for blood. 

(12.) Show test for bilirubin and biliverdin. 

(13.) Exhibit presence of indican in a specimen of urine. 

(14.) Show action of ptyalin by mixing saliva with starch 
solution, and heat to 35°-40°, and test for sugar. 

(15.) Test pepsin in acid solution for its digestive power on 
coagulated albumin and fibrin. 

(16.) Take an alkaline pancreatic solution, and test it for its 
power of converting starch into sugar, its peptogenic action on 
coagulated albumin or fibrin in alkaline solutions, its curdling 
action upon milk, and its emulsive power on fats. 

(17.) Crystallize urea from urine as urea nitrate, and observe 
its crystals. 

(18.) Treat uric acid with HN0 3 and NH 4 HO, and observe 
the forming of murexid. Test a solution of uric acid with a 
solution of sodic hypochlorite, and observe the rose-red color. 

(19.) Show the Pettenkoffer reactions for biliary acids on a 
specimen of bile. 

(20.) Make a starch solution, and show its precipitation by 
tannin, its reaction with iodine, and its conversion into sugar 
by a malt infusion. 

(21.) Test a specimen of glycogen with potassic-iodide-iodine 
solution, and observe red color. Prepare glycogen from liver. 

(22.) Dissolve a specimen of glucose in H 2 S0 4 , and note 
absence of coloration ; and also its change to brown on treat- 
ment with alkalies. Boil it with a dilute solution of indigo, 



URINE AND ITS ANALYSIS. 89 

rendered alkaline by sodic carbonate ; on boiling, the color 
turns first red, then yellow, but returns after cooling and agita- 
tion. Boil with alkaline water containing bismuth subnitrate 
which will turn black. Test with alkaline solution of Picric 
acid, and note brown color. 

(23.) Acidulate a solution of inosit with HNO s , evaporate 
and treat with NH 4 HO, and note pink color. 

(24.) Treat cholesterin with HN0 3 , evaporate, and add to 
yellow evaporate NH 4 HO ; it will turn brick-red, and will not 
be changed by KHO. Heat with a mixture of 2HCI and 1 
ferric chloride solution, and note violet color. Add to a little 
cholesterin a few drops of H,S0 4 , and note red color, which 
turns green on addition of chloroform. 



PART IV. 
EXCRETIONS AND CONCRETIONS. 

Urine and Its Analysis. 

Urine is, for diagnostic purposes, undoubtedly the most 
important of the human excreta. As the product of renal 
elimination, it contains normally the most of the waste-mate- 
rial separated from the blood in the process of regressive meta- 
morphosis, and abnormally a number of substances showing 
impaired physical action of the kidneys, or in other cases, 
superinduced by the latter condition, a retention of some of 
the excretory bodies which by their presence in the circulation 
produce pathic action. The physical process which constitutes 
the kidneys emunctories of the circulating fluids, is not to be 
considered here, but it is well to- bear in mind that the cellular 
membrane can only separate true solutions, and that others than 
those are products of a secondary process. Many of the com- 
ponents of urinary excretion have already been mentioned in 

7 



90 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

the previous part of this work, and others will appear in the 
further consideration of this subject For diagnostic purposes, 
it is necessary first to possess a knowledge of the normal com- 
ponents of urine ; secondly, to recognize the components result- 
ing from pathic conditions of the secernating organs ; and, 
thirdly, the adventitious components of the circulating fluids, 
whence components foreign to normal urine are derived. The 
normal urine exhibits properties which to a great extent are 
influenced by the general conditions of the system, the nutritive 
changes, and the condition of the circulating fluids. Thus, the 
quantity excreted depends upon renal activity and the condi- 
tions influencing the same. While an excretion of about 1200- 
1600 c.c. is claimed to be the average amount voided in twenty- 
four hours by a healthy male adult, the quantity excreted by 
the female is held to be somewhat less. In both cases this is 
much influenced by cutaneous excretion, which by great activity 
may depress the amount to 400-500 c.c. in twenty-four hours, 
while through an increase in blood pressure, as in augmented 
dilution of the circulating fluid, the amount is proportionately 
increased. Again, the presence of sugar, salts, etc., favoring the 
osmotic process as well as psychical conditions, may vastly in- 
fluence the excreting power of the kidneys, as also the presence 
in the blood of substances foreign to the organism, such as med- 
icinal agents, which either by their influence upon the nervous 
system, or their effects upon the conducting vessels, may bring 
about changes in the volume of the excreted fluid. Whatever 
the variations of the quantity of urine under normal conditions, 
the amount of the excreta contained therein in solution should 
be about the same in twenty-four hours. It is of primary im- 
portance, therefore, in all examinations of urine, to determine 
the total quantities voided in certain periods under observation, 
or to establish the ratio of the solids contained in a certain 
amount of urine. This is easily accomplished by ascertaining 
the specific gravity of a specimen of all the quantities voided in 
twenty-four hours, after being duly corrected for the conditions 
influencing it. The manner of obtaining the specific gravity 
has been explained under another head, and is ordinarily ac- 
complished in connection with urinary analysis by either the 
specific-gravity vial or more readily by hydrometers and urino- 



URINE AND ITS ANALYSIS. 9 1 

meters intended for this purpose, and ranging from 1000, the 
specific gravity of distilled water at a stated temperature, to 1040, 
the degree corresponding to the specific gravity for a liquid of 
that density obtained by other methods. By evaporating a 
number of specimens of urine, and weighing their solid ingre- 
dients in comparison to their specific gravity, an empyrical co- 
efficient was obtained, by the application of which the solids of 
a certain specimen of a known specific gravity can be readily 
determined. This coefficient is set down at 2.33 (but usually 
only 2 is employed), and a multiplication of this with the two 
numbers expressing the specific gravity from the right to the 
left, gives, accurately enough for practical purposes, the number 
in grams of the solid ingredients contained in 1000 c.c. of the 
specimen under examination, or better still, one-tenth of this 
will give the percentage of solids in a specimen of urine so 
examined. 

Thus, if the specific gravity of a sample of urine were found 
to be 1013 the amount of solids therein would be 13 X 2.33 = 
29.69 grams in 1000 c.c, or 2.97 per cent., and if the amount 
voided in twenty-four hours were 1500 ex., the total solids thus 
excreted would be 44.53 grams. This, of course, is approxi- 
mate only, and apt at times to be fallacious, and, therefore, if 
accuracy is attempted, a certain volume of urine should be 
evaporated over the water bath to dryness, until no further loss 
is experienced at repeated weighings, and the residue left to 
cool under a dessicator and then determined. Abnormally, 
large amounts of urine, voided with a high specific gravity, 
invariably point to sugar contained therein, small amounts, with 
a low specific gravity would indicate renal disease, while con- 
centrated urine with diminished amount of solids for the twenty- 
four hours are observed after copious perspiration, diarrhoeas, 
and emesis. A small volume of urine, voided with low specific 
gravity, is also found in chronic affections, and towards the 
fatal end of many diseases, where vital metamorphosis is de- 
pressed. The average distribution of the solids, according to 
their chemical characters in normal urine, has been ascertained 
by J. Vogel, from a large number of examinations, of which he 
gives the following as average : 



92 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

In Twenty-four Hours. 

Volume, 1500 

Specific gravity, ......... 1020 

Water, H'O 

Solids, 60 

Urea, 35 

Uric acid, .......... 0.75 

Sodic chloride, ......... 16.5 

Phosphoric acid, . 3.5 

Total of earthy phosphates, ...... 1.2 

Ammonia, .......... 0.65 

Sulphuric acid, ......... 2.0 

Free acids, .......... 3. 

The color of the urine is variable and depends on the dilution 
thereof by the volume of water as well as on certain abnormal, 
or the excess of normal, products it contains, as also on the 
presence of adventitious matter, such as medicinal agents 
therein. It may appear in all shades from pale yellow, red- 
brown to brownish-black, and these shades may often serve as 
an indication for diagnostic purposes. Thus pale yellow would 
point to affections where the volume of water is largely in- 
creased, as in diabetes as well as in hysteria and after epileptic 
attacks, and would certainly exclude the existence of an acute 
febrile process, while the dark urine appears after heavy meals 
and exercise, copious perspiration and also in acute fever 
processes. Red and reddish-brown urine would point to the 
presence of coloring matter from the blood, yellowish-green to 
j» biliary pigments, brownish-black to Melanosis, while occa- 
sionally a blue coloration may appear due to indigo. The 
influence of certain medicinal agents on the urine is quite char- 
acteristic, senna and rhubarb produce a yellow color turning red 
with alkalies and yellow with acids, while gallic acid and car- 
bolic acid render it dark-brown to black. In its normal condition 
urine is always clear and any turbidity must occur subsequent 
to secernation. Turbidity may be occasioned by oversatura- 
tion and crystallization at a lower temperature, as with uric acid 
or urates, or from a change from the acid to the alkaline condi- 
tion, also from admixture of mucus, epithelium, blood, pus, etc. 
When shaken, its froth should rapidly disappear, unless it 
contains albumen. Its odor is specific and is changed by de- 
•composition to ammoniacal, and by various foods or by medi- 



ANALYSIS OF URINE INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 93 

cinal agents which may give it characteristic odor, as in the 
case of turpentine, etc. In reaction, normal urine is acid or 
neutral, occasionally' answering both acid and alkaline tests 
The acidity is due to sodic and potassic acid — phosphates and 
also probably to acid urates as well as free uric, carbonic and 
hippuric acids. Its reaction is also influenced by certain con- 
ditions such as fasting or by vegetable diet which render it 
slightly alkaline. It undergoes a so-called fermentation in- 
creasing for some days in acidity and subsequently turning 
alkaline. The alkalinity of urine is due either to ammonic or 
sodic carbonate or disodic phosphate. To determine the de- 
gree of acidity of urine, the rules laid down under the head of 
acidimetry should be applied (q.v.). 

The normal constituents of urine may be divided into inor- 
ganic and organic. The former are chlorides, sulphates and 
phosphates of sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium and 
magnesium, also iron in combination, silicic, nitric and nitrous 
acid in combination with the above and hydrogen peroxide. 
The organic constituents of normal urine are urea, uric and hip- 
puric acids, xanthin, hypoxanthin, kreatin and kreatinin, oxalic, 
oxaluric, lactic, glycerophosphoric, benzoic, succinic, phenol- 
sulphonic, indoxylsulphuric and skatolsulphuric acids, also 
urinary pigments and sugar. The free gases present according 
to Planer amount at an average to about 5 c.c. in 100 c.c. of 
urine, of which carbonic acid forms 87.53, nitrogen 11.22, and 
oxygen 0.62 per cents. 

ANALYSIS OF URINE. 

After duly noting the quantity and color of urine voided in 
24 hours and obtaining its reaction by means of either litmus 
or turmeric paper, the specific gravity is ascertained and the 
amount of solids computed therefrom ; any sediment present 
is then separated by decantation and the urine itself filtered. 

INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 

Sodic chloride — To determine this qualitatively add, with 
pipette, argentic nitrate solution which will give a heavy curded 
precipitate of argentic chloride and phosphate ; on addition of 
HNO3 the argentic phosphate is redissolved and the chloride 



94 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

can be separated and confirmed by its solubility in NH 4 HO 
and by gradually assuming a darker color when exposed to 
sunlight. The amount of NaCl excreted in the urine in 24 
hours should be about 10 to 15 grams in adult persons. It is 
normally increased after meals and by exercise and copious 
draughts of water, also proportionately with its ingestion. In 
inflammatory exudative affections the chlorides are diminished 
in the ratio of the progressive inflammation, reaching often at 
its height -fe of the normal quantity or disappearing even 
almost entirely. In renal affections accompanied by albuminuria 
the amount of NaCl is always diminished as well as in dropsy 
and ascites, also in chyluria, typhus and recurrent fevers, and 
it is totally absent in cholera. 

For the approximation of the quantities of chlorides present 
in urine, a small quantity of it is acidulated with HN0 3 , to pre- 
vent the precipitation of silver phosphate and then, drop by 
drop, the argentic nitrate solution is introduced until no further 
precipitation takes place, and the amount of silver chloride so 
formed is then estimated according to the density of the pre- 
cipitate. 

Quantitative determination of NaCl in urine. Several methods 
are in vogue for this purpose but the simplest and perhaps also 
the most correct is that of Mohr as modified by Neubauer. 
The former depends upon the use of mercuric nitrate and the 
latter of argentic nitrate solution, which precipitates the sodic 
chloride first and the phosphates afterwards, a solution of neu- 
tral potassic chromate being used to indicate when the chlorides 
have been precipitated. 

The argentic silver solution is made by dissolving 29.075 grams 
of pure fused argentic nitrate in 1000 c.c. distilled water, so that 
I c.c. of this solution corresponds to 0.01 NaCl. The solution 
of neutral potassic chromate is simply saturated. Urine that is 
not too highly colored, can be titrated by the above solution 
directly by diluting 10 c.c. urine with water to 100 c.c, a few 
drops of the chromate solution being added. The argentic 
nitrate solution is then dropped into it from a burette until a be- 
ginning orange tint indicates the completion of the chloride pre- 
cipitation. As the beginning of the orange tint already indicates 
an excess of argentic nitrate, 1 c.c. should be deducted when 
reading off the latter. 



INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 95 

In highly colored urine containing many organic compounds 
these should be removed as follows : I to 2 grams potassic nitrate 
are added to io c.c. urine in a platinum or porcelain dish, 
and the contents evaporated to dryness. The dry residue is 
incinerated and allowed to cool and is then dissolved in 20 to 
30 c.c. water and filtered. It is then slightly acidulated with di- 
lute acetic acid ; a few drops of the chromate solution is then 
added and the solution titrated with the argentic nitrate solution 
as above. 

Phosphates — Phosphoric acid is contained in the urine, partly 
combined with alkalies, partly with alkaline earths and also -in 
the organic ingredients as glycerophosphoric acid and lecithin. 
The normal amount of phosphates excreted in 24 hours 
is about 2 to 5 grams, of which about 2 /^ are of the alkalies 
and 1/3 of alkaline earths (calcium and magnesium). While 
the phosphates are diminished by starvation they are never 
totally absent like the chlorides. In febrile conditions they are 
diminished and increase with convalescence; while in meningitis 
the earthy phosphates are increased, also in osteomalacia, rachitis, 
and chronic rheumatism ; in renal affections they are diminished, 
and said to be totally absent in acute atrophy and cirrhosis of 
the liver. 

The phosphates of the alkalies are not precipitable from 
their solutions by alkalies, but by magnesium sulphate or calcic 
chloride. The phosphates of the alkaline earths are kept in 
solution in the urine by the weak acids, carbonic, etc., and pre- 
cipitated therefrom by NH 4 HO or KHO. 

The triple phosphate, ammonio-magnesic phosphate (NH 4 
MgP0 4 -j- 6H 2 0), of characteristic microscopic crystalline struc- 
ture, occurs in urine as a consequence of decomposition and 
liberation of ammonia. Qualitatively the phosphates in the 
urine can be shown by precipitation with baric chloride or 
nitrate after neutralization of the acid phosphates. By precipi- 
tation of the chlorides first in presence of neutral potassic chro- 
mate with argentic nitrate, and separation of the argentic 
chloride and chromate the phosphates can be precipitated from 
the filtrate by further addition of the argentic nitrate. Am- 
nionic molybdate precipitates phosphates as a yellow fine pre- 
cipitate, if slightly warmed. By treating urine with a mixture 



g6 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

of magnesic sulphate I part, water 8 parts, ammonic chloride 
I part, and ammonia 44 parts, all the phosphates can be sepa- 
rated as triple phosphates. 

. The quantitative determination of the phosphates in urine is 
accomplished by means of a standardized solution of uranic 
acetate in the presence of an acidulated solution of sodic acetate 
with potassic ferrocyanide as indicator; this shows any uncom- 
bined uranic acetate as a chocolate colored precipitate. The 
solutions necessary are, the standardized solution of uranic ace- 
tate, 20 c. c. of which should correspond to 50 c. c. of the sodic 
phosphate solution (10.085 in 1000 c. c. water) equal to 0.1 grams 
P 2 5 , the litre of the uranic acetate solution to contain 20.3 
grams uranic oxide; a solution of 100 grams sodic acetate and 
100 c.c. acetic acid in iooo c.c. water, and a saturated solution 
of potassic ferrocyanide. To determine the P 2 5 in the urine 
add 5 c. c. of the sodic acetate solution to 50 c. c. of urine ; 
heat to boiling point and add from a burette the standardized 
solution of uranic acetate, stirring after each addition, and test- 
ing a drop on a porcelain slab with the indicating potassic ferro- 
cyanide solution, continuing as long as a precipitate results and 
until a chocolate-colored test with the potassic ferrocyanide is 
obtained. 

As 20 c. c. of the uranic acetate solution correspond to 0.1 
grams P 2 5 , 100 c. c. will be equal to 0.5 grams, and each c. c. 
of the uranic solution will indicate 0.005 P 2 5 . Thus if 13.5 
c. c. of the uranic solution have been consumed to saturation, the 
amount of P 2 5 contained in the 50 c. c. of urine is 13.5X0.005 
= 0.067 grams or 0.135 P er cent. To obtain the amount of 
P 2 5 in the earthy phosphates of a specimen of urine, a certain 
volume is rendered alkaline with NH 4 HO, the deposit, after 
twenty-four hours dissolved in acetic acid and titrated as above; 
the amount so formed and deducted from the total amount of 
P 2 5 formed gives the quantity of P 2 5 combined with alkalies. 

The sulphuric acid excreted in the urine is found in two differ- 
ent forms, as sulphates of the alkalies and of the aromatic organic 
bases. The former comprise about 90 parts of the total amount 
so excreted and the latter 10 parts, the total amounting to about 
2.5 to 4 grams in 24 hours. As the sulphates are derived princi- 
pally from the albumins, the amounts excreted would be in- 



ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 97 

creased in febrile processes and will diminish with convalescence 
or the falling off of albuminous food. Abnormally it is in- 
creased in urine by ingestion of sulphur compounds, phenol, 
thymol, liquor potassse, and in delirium tremens ; it is dimin- 
ished in leukaemia, diabetes mellitus, eczema, and chlorosis. 
If carbolic acid is taken in large quantities the sulphuric acid of 
the alkalies is present as potassic phenylsulphonate, and as 
such is not precipitated by baric chloride. 

The presence of sulphuric acid compounds in urine can 
be ascertained by treating urine acidulated with acetic acid 
with baric chloride, which gives a precipitate of baric sulphate. 
It can be made to show in two successive stages the organic 
and inorganic sulphates. 

Quantitatively sulphuric acid as sulphates of inorganic and 
organic bases may be determined together and again the latter 
singly, giving the difference between the two by the gravimetric 
method, by first precipitating the neutral and subsequently the 
acidulated urine, separating the first precipitate and then pre- 
cipitating and weighing the precipitate from the filtered liquid. 
By acidulating and precipitating at once with the baric solution 
the total sulphates are obtained. Volumetrically it is determined 
by a standard baric chloride solution containing 30.5 grams in 
1000 c. c. One c. c. of this is equal to 0.0 1 grams S0 3 . 100 c. c. 
urine are acidulated with a little HC1 and boiled, and the baric 
solution is allowed to flow in gradually, time being allowed for 
the precipitate to subside after each addition. Excess of baric 
chloride must be carefully avoided. As 1 c. c. of the baric solu- 
tion is equal to 1.01 grams S0 3 , 20 c. c. of the standard solu- 
tion necessary for complete precipitation would indicate 0.2 
grams in 100 c. c. urine or 0.2 per cents. 

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 

Urea — The' final product of the eliminative process of most 
of the nitrogenous material of the body, of which about 30-40 
grams are excreted in 24 hours by a healthy male adult. 
Women eliminate less and children relatively more. As al- 
ready stated elsewhere, it is found in the blood, chyle, liver, 
glands, but not distinctly shown to occur in the muscles. It 
has been also detected in the ejecta, saliva, pus and milk during 



98 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

renal inaction, as well as in the dejecta of cholera. Its deter- 
mination is one of the most important diagnostic aids to 
ascertain the albumin decomposition in various affections, as in 
inanition, fevers, etc. It is increased in typhus, pneumonia, 
diabetes, also in acute febrile affections and phthisis, while it is 
decreased in profuse perspiration, diarrhoea, cholera, the last 
stage of Bright's disease, cachectic states, gout and chronic 
rheumatism, in neuroses, melancholia, hysteria, and in hepatic 
affections, especially yellow atrophy. Crystallized from water 
it appears in silky needles ; if HN0 3 is added, rhombic and 
hexagonal plates of urea nitrate are formed. It produces a 
white curdy precipitate with mercuric nitrate, which in the 
presence of sodic bicarbonate is turned yellow as soon as all 
the free urea is precipitated and mercuric nitrate is in excess. 
The solutions of sodic hypobromate or hypochlorite decompose 
it, without heating, the former more rapidly than the latter, 
nitrogen being liberated and the carbonic anhydride is ab- 
sorbed. Nitrous acid will have the same effect. Oxalic 
acid forms urea oxalate similar to the nitrate. To demon- 
strate urea in urine condense the latter by evaporation, 
treat with alcohol, evaporate alcoholic solution, and into 
the aqueous solution of the residue introduce a thread with one 
end protruding. Touch the end of the thread with HN0 3 or 
oxalic acid and observe the crystals forming on both sides of 
the thread. Albuminous urine should be first freed from albu- 
men by boiling. If to concentrated urine an equal volume of 
HNO3 * s a ^ded, the nitrate of urea will soon be found to crys- 
tallize. To separate urea from blood, difibrinate with several 
volumes of alcohol, evaporate the alcoholic solution and dis- 
solve residue with water. Precipitate the phosphates with baric 
hydrate, filter and remove excess of baric hydrate with carbonic 
acid. Test the filtered liquid with HN0 3 , or oxalic acid, or 
mercuric nitrate, as above. 

The volumetric determination of urea can be accomplished 
by several methods, depending on some of the above reactions; 
the precipitation with mercuric nitrate, being known as the 
Liebig's process, is, however, open to errors and now generally 
abandoned for the hypobromite or hypochlorite process above 
indicated. 



ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 99 

The hypobromite solution used in this process should be pre- 
pared as needed in the following manner : 

ioo grams sodic hydrate are dissolved in 250 c.c. of water, 
and when cooled 25 c.c. bromine are mixed with it. This allows 
for an excess of sodic hydrate to absorb the carbonic anhydride 
liberated along with the nitrogen. 

The apparatus necessary consists in a flask of about 75 c.c. 
capacity, with a sufficiently wide neck to admit a test tube of 
about 15 c.c. The flask is well closed by a gum stopper, per- 
forated and containing an india-rubber tube connected with a 
burette of 50 c.c. capacity, suitably subdivided. The burette ends 
on top in a drawn out, open point, to which the said tube is con- 
nected, and is open at the bottom, floating in a cylindrical glass, 
with water, long enough to contain the entire burette. To con- 
duct the operation the test tube is filled with about 5 c.c. of 
urine to be examined, while surrounding it in the containing 
flask are 25 c.c. of the hypobromite solution, or 50 c.c. of sodic 
hypochlorite solution, the solution of chlorinated soda of the 
U. S. Pharmacopoeia. The india-rubber tube attached to the 
burette is then temporarily removed to allow the burette to fill 
with water to o.c.c, and this to be on a level with the water in 
the cylinder, when the india-rubber tube is again attached. By 
canting over the flask containing the hypobromite solution the 
urine is allowed to gradually flow into the former, and amidst 
effervescence the nitrogen is now liberated and displaces the 
water of the burette. After all the urine has thus been mixed 
with the hypobromite solution and the test tube well rinsed out 
and the solution well shaken, the apparatus is left to assume 
the surrounding temperature, when, by bringing the level of 
the water in the burette to the level of the water in the cylinder, 
the amount of nitrogen liberated can be read off and noted. 
Each c.c. of nitrogen so obtained represents 0.0027 grams of 
urea, if the temperature were o°C. and the barometric pressure 
760 mill. For ordinary purposes the product of the multipli- 
cation of the number of c.c.'s of nitrogen developed with 
O.0027 would give the amount of urea contained in the 5 c.c. of 
urine, but when accuracy is attempted due correction should be 
made for temperature and barometric pressure, else a vitiation 
of about 10 per cent, of the result obtained will be occasioned. 



100 



APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 



How to compute the corrections for these factors has been 
shown under the head of Stoichiometry, but a much easier plan 
is to correct it from the table of Dietrich, found below, giving 
the weight of I c.c. nitrogen at the respective temperature en- 
tered from the right and barometric pressure entered from the 
top. As it has been shown that the weight of nitrogen repre- 
sents 2.14 times the weight of urea, it is only necessary to com- 
pute the amount of nitrogen measured into its weight, corrected 
for temperature and barometric pressure, and multiply this with 
2.14 to obtain the correct result. 

Weight of one C. C. Nitrogen in Milligrams. 



u 
3 

« 
u 
V 


Barometric Pressure. 


s 


720 


722 


724 


726 


728 


730 


732 


734 


736 


738 74o 


742 


744 


IO° 


1. 1338 


1. 1370 


1. 1402 


1 -1434 


1 .1466 


1 .1498 


1. 1529 


1.1561 


IJ 593 


1. 1625 1. 1657 


1. 1689 


1.1721 


u u 


1. 1288 


1 .1320 


I-I352 


1.1384:1.1415 


1.1447 1. 1479 


1.1511 


1. 1542 


1. 1 574 1. 1606 


1. 1638 


1 .1670 


I2 U 


1. 1237 


1 .1269 1.1301 


1.1333I1.1364 


1. 1396 1.1428 1.1459 1.1491 


1. 1573 1. 1554 


1.1586 


1.1618 


I3 U 


1.1187 


1.1219 1.1251 


1 .1282 1 . 1314 


1.1345 1. 1377 1. 1409 1. 1440 


1. 1472 1. 1503 


1. 1535 


1.1566 


14- 


1.1136 1.1168 1. 1200 


1.1231 1.1263 


1. 1294 1.1326 1. 1357 1.1389 


1 .1420 1 .1452 


1. 1483 


I-I515 


i5 u 


I .1085 T . I II7 I . I I49 


I.Il8o T .1211 


1.1243 1. 1274 1. 1305 1. 1337 


1. 1368 1. 1399 1.1431 


1. 1462 


ib u 


I . IO34 I. I066 I. IO97 I.II28 I.Il6o 


1.1191 1. 1222 1. 1253 1. 1285 


1.1316 1. 1347 


1. 1378 


1. 1409 


1 7 


I.0983 I.IOI4 I. IO45 


I .IO76 I.IIO7 


1.1138 1. 1170 1.1201 1. 1232 


1. 1263 1 .1294 


1-1325 


I-I356 


1 8° 


I.O93O I. 0961 I.0992 


I . 1023' I .IO54 


1. 1085 


1.1117 1. 11 48 1. 11 79 


1 . 1209 1 . 1241 


1. 1272 


1. i3°3 


19° 


1.0877 1.0908 1.0939 1.0970 I.IOOI 


1. 1032 


1. 1063 1.1094 1.1125 


1.1156 1.1187 


1.1218 


1. 1248 


20° 


I.0825 I.0855 


1.0886 1. 0917 1.0948 


1.0979 1. 1009 1. 1040 1.1071 


1.1102 1. 1133 


1.1164 


1.1194 


2I U 


I .O77I I.0802 


1.0832 1.0863 1.0894 


1.0924 1.0955 1.0986 1.1017 


1. 1047 1. 1078 


1. 1 109 


1.1139 


22 U 


I. O7I7 I.O747 I.O778 I.0808 I.0839 


1.0870 1.0900 1.0931 1. 0961 


1.0992 1. 1023 


1. 1053 1 .1084 


23 U 


I.0662 


1.0692 1.0723 1.0753 1.0784 1. 0814 1.0845 1-0875 1.0906 1.0936 1.0967 


1 .0997 1. 1028 


2 4 U 


I.0606 I.0636 I.0667 L0697 I.O728 


1.0758 1.0789 1. 0819 1 .0849 1 .0880 1 .0910 


1 .0940 1 .0971 


25° 


I.O55O 


1 .0580 


1. 0610 1. 0641 1. 0671 


1. 0701 1.0732 1.0762 1.0792 1.0823 1.0853 

1 1 1 1 ! 


1.0883 


1. 0913 


■u 

3 

rt 

u 

1) 


Barometric Pressure. 


s 

1) 

H 

IO° 


746 


748 


750 


752 


754 


756 


758 


760 


762 


764 


766 


768 


770 


1. 1753 


1. 1785 


1.1817 


I. 1848 


1. 1880 


1 .1912 


1-1944 


1.1976 


1 .2008 


1 . 2040 


1 .2072 


1. 2 104 


1. 2136 


II U 


1.1701 


I-I733 


1. 1765 


I.I7I7 I .1829 


1. i860 


1. 1892 1. 1924 1. 1956 1 . 1988 1. 2019 1. 2051 


1 .2083 


I2 U 


1.1649 


1.1681 


1-1713 


1.1744 I. I776 


1. 1808 1. 1839 


1.1871 


1 . 1903 1 . 1934 1 . 1966 1 . 1998 


1 .2029 


13" 


1 . 1598 1 . 1630 


1.1661 


I. 1693 I. I724 


1. 1756 1.1787 


1.1819 


1.1851 1. 1882 1.1914 1. 1945 


1. 1977 


i4 u 


1. 1546J1. 1577 


1 . 1609 


1. 1640 I. 1672 


1. 1703 


I-I735 


1. 1 766 


1.1798,1.1829 1.1861 1. 1892 


1. 1923 


15° 


1. 1493 1.1525 


1. 1556 


I. I587 I.1619 I.165O 


1.1681 


i.X7 J 3 


1. 1744 1. 1775 1. 1807 1,1838 


1. 1869 


16° 


1.1441,1.1472 


1-1503 


1. 1534 I. I566 I. I597 


1 . 1628 


1. 1659 


1.1691 1.1722,1.1753 1. 1784 


1.1816 


17° 


1. 1397 1.1419 


1-145° 


i. 1481 1.15x2 x. 1543 


1.1*74 


1. 1605 


1. 1636 1. 1667 1. 1699 1. 1730 


1.1761 


1 8° 


1. 1334. 1. 1365 


1. 1396 


I. I427 1.1458,1.1489 


1.1520 


I-I55I 


1. 1582 i.i6h 1. 1644 1. 1675 


1. 1706 


x 9 o 


1 .1279 1.1310 


1.1341 


I. I372 I. 1403' I. I434 


1. 1465 


1. 1496 


1. 1527 1. 1558 1. 1589 1. 1620 


1. 1650 


20° 


1. 1225 1. 1256 1. 1287 


I.I318 I. 1348 1.1379 


1. 1410 


1.1441 


1. 1472 1. 1502 1. 1533 1. 1564 


1 -1595 


2I U 


1 . 1170 1 . 1201 


1 .1231 


I. I262 I. 1293 I . 1324 


I-I354 


1. 1385 


1.1416 1.1446 1. 1477 1. 1508 


L^ 


220 


1.11x5 i-"45 


1.1176 


1.1206 i.i237 | i.i268 


1.1298 


1. 1329 


1.1359 1.1390 1.1421 1.1451 


1.1482 


23° 


1. 1058 1. 1089 


1 .1119 


1.1150 1.1180 


1.1211 


1. 1241 


1. 1272 


1.1302,1.1333 1. 1363 1. 1394 


1. 1424 


24 u 


1.1001,1.1032 


1 . 1062 


1 .1092 1. 1 123 


1. "53 


1.1184 


I . 1214 


1.1244^.1275 1. 1305 1. 1336 


1. 1366 


25 u 


1.0944 1.0974 


1 .1004 


1. 1035 1. 1065 


1 • 1095 


1.1126 


I.II56 


1.1186 1.1216 1. 1247 1. 1277 

1 


1 . 1307 



ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. IOI 

Thus if 5 c.c. of urine yielded at 25°C. temperature and 750 
mill, barometric pressure, 16 c.c. nitrogen, one c.c. would weigh, 
under these circumstances, 1.1004 milligrams. This multi- 
plied by 16 would give 17.6 milligrams nitrogen obtained, 
and would correspond to 2.14 times that weight of urea = 
37.664 milligrams urea in 5 c.c. urine, or 20 times that 
amount would give the percentage 0.75 of urea found in the 
urine; or in an average yield of urine of 1200 c.c. in 24 hours, 
the amount of urea excreted in that period would be 12 X 0.75 
= 9.00 grams. As the hypobromite solution is at best an 
unstable preparation, the sodic hypochlorite solution (solution 
of chlorinated soda), on account of its greater stability and equal 
efficacy in double the quantity, can readily be employed, and as 
it is found of good quality in the market, the latter would 
recommend itself for physicians' use in ureometry. 

Uric acid is found normally in the urine in quantities vary- 
ing from 0.5 to 2 grams in 24 hours, and next to urea it is 
that excretive substance which eliminates most nitrogen from 
the blood. Normally it is found in the urine with urea in a 
pretty constant proportion of 1 to 45, in solution with disodic 
phosphate, with which it combines to acid — sodic urate and 
monosodic phosphate. As it is soluble only in 18,000 parts 
of cold and 15,000 parts hot water, uric acid is at times found 
in the bladder in concrete form. Abnormally uric acid excre- 
tion is increased in febrile conditions, with impairment of the 
respiratory functions, chronic emphysema, leukaemia, indiges- 
tion, eczema. It is diminished by the free use of sodic chlo- 
ride and water, large doses of quinine, potassic iodide, sodic 
sulphate and carbonate, and lithic carbonate, etc., also in gouty 
and chronic diseases as a rule. 

Qualitatively uric acid can be determined by taking a quan- 
tity of urine (deprived of albumen if any were present), evapo- 
rating to dryness over water bath and depriving it of the urea 
and extractives by alcohol. The residue, containing uric acid, 
mucin and fixed salts, is treated with a few drops of HNO ;i , so 
that it will dissolve, then is evaporated until a reddish-yellow 
residue remains ; if touched with a drop of ammonia, it gives a 
splendid purple-red color, or if KHO or NaHO is used in its 
place, a purple-blue is obtained (murexid test). If the uric acid 



102 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

residue as above obtained is dissolved in KHO and then a few 
drops of HC1 or acetic acid are added, the uric acid will, on 
standing, crystallize out in transparent rhombic tables. A 
solution of the residue in sodic carbonate, if added to a drop or 
two of argentic nitrate solution on test paper, will reduce the 
latter, a dark spot of reduced silver appearing. A solution of 
the residue in a little caustic soda, if added to a sodic hypo- 
chlorite solution, produces pink coloration. 

The quantitative determination of uric acid depends on its 
presence in the urine in soluble salts, which, upon acidulation, 
are decomposed, the liberated acid, on account of its small solu- 
bility, crystallizes out and is weighed as such. To accomplish 
this 300 c.c. urine are mixed with about 5-10 c.c. HC1 and set 
aside at a low temperature for 24 hours or longer. Almost the 
entire uric acid has by this time separated in crystals and is now 
collected on a washed, dried and weighed filter. After washing 
the crystals on the filter with a little water, added little at the 
time, the filter with the crystals dried is then weighed, and the 
latter weight, less the first weight of filter, gives the amount of 
uric acid corresponding to 300 c.c. urine. As owing to the 
slight solubility of the free acid in the urine and water employed 
for washing, the result will always be too low; 0.0038 grams. 
Uric acid should be added to the result for every 100 c.c. of 
fluid (i.e., 300 c.c. -j- the water employed for washing the 
crystals). 

Hippuric Acid. — Found normally in human urine in quan- 
tities varying from 0.3 to I grams in 24 hours. On boiling 
with acids or alkalies hippuric acid is decomposed into benzoic 
acid and glycocin, and in an inverse manner if benzoic acid is 
ingested it combines with the glycocin of the body to hippuric 
acid. It is stated to be increased in fevers and decreased in 
icterus. In parenchymatous nephritis benzoic acid is excreted 
without change. 

Hippuric acid is deposited in the acid urine, if present in suf- 
ficient quantity in transparent four-sided prisms or needles, 
and can be demonstrated by a similar reaction as that of ben- 
zoic acid, by boiling it with HN0 3 , evaporating and heating the 
residue, when a distinct odor of oil of bitter almonds is devel- 
oped. To approximate it in urine 300-500 c.c. of urine are 



ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. IO3 

rendered slightly alkaline with sodic carbonate, evaporated to 
syrupy consistence and extracted with absolute alcohol. The 
alcohol solution is then evaporated, the residue dissolved in 
water and the solution acidulated and well shaken with acetic 
ether. To avoid presence of benzoic acid the residue of the 
ether evaporation is treated with petroleumbenzin, when hip- 
puric acid alone will remain. 

Kreatinin. — A derivate of the kreatin of muscle normally 
found in the urine in quantities varying from 0.5 to 1.3 grams 
in 24 hours. It is abnormally increased in febrile processes 
and lessened in anaemia, chlorosis, diabetes, Bright's disease 
and tetanus. 

To demonstrate its presence in urine the kreatin should first 
be converted into kreatinin, by boiling with a little dilute 
H 2 S0 4 , then add a solution of sodic nitro-prusside and a little 
NaHO, and note the red color, which, however, soon disap- 
pears. For its quantitative estimation its product with zinc 
chloride is utilized. At least 300 c.c. urine will have to be em- 
ployed, and these are treated with milk of lime to alkalescence 
and subsequently with calcic chloride until no further precipi- 
tate occurs. After subsidence the precipitate is filtered off and 
washed out, the filtrate condensed to syrupy thickness, and 
while warm mixed with 40-50 c.c. of stronger alcohol. After 
this has subsided for 6-8 hours, it is filtered and IC-15 drops 
of an alcoholic zinc chlorine solution added and set aside for 
2-3 days, when the whole is thrown on a tared filter, the pre- 
cipitate washed with alcohol and dried and weighed. 100 
kreatinin-zinc-chloride = 62.44 kreatinin. 

Besides the aromatic ethyl-sulphuric acids, amongst which 
properly belongs " indican " as potassic indoxylsulphate, oxalic 
acid deserves mention not alone as a normal ingredient of urine, 
though in very small amounts, but also for the pathological im- 
portance when excreted in larger quantities as calcic oxalate, 
occasioning vesical concretes. 

For its determination, in urine 500-600 c.c. Urine are 
treated with Calcic chloride solution. This is rendered slightly 
alkaline with NH 4 HO, and the precipitate dissolved in acetic 
acid, avoiding excess. After 24 hours the precipitate of uric 
acid now formed is collected on a filter, washed and the calcic 



104 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

oxalate dissolved in HC1, diluted and covered with NH 4 HO, 
when in 24 hours further all of the calcic oxalate will be sepa- 
rated in the vessel. 

URINARY COLORING BODIES. 

These bodies, by recent investigations have been reduced to 
only two important ones, of which one is claimed not to pre- 
exist in urine, but to owe its presence there to another sub- 
stance, and as a product of oxidation thereof (Urobilin, 
Hoppe-Seyler) while the other (indican) plainly belongs to the 
aromatic ethylsulphuric acid group. As they seem, however, 
to be the chief bodies from which urine derives its color they 
will be taken up here. 

Urobilin (hydrobilirubin) has been shown to be formed from 
bilirubin with sodiumamalgam as hydrobilirubin which is iden- 
tical with urobilin. A substance of the same properties was 
produced by Hoppe-Seyler from haematin, showing the succes- 
sive change of the blood-coloring matter to biliary and urinary 
pigments. According to the former, urobilin does not exist 
in the normal urine as such, but a substance is precipitated by 
basic lead acetate, which when liberated from the lead salt by 
H 2 S0 4 and alcohol, gradually oxidizes into urobilin. It forms 
a reddish-brown mass with green tint in reflected light, insol- 
uble in water, readily soluble in alcohol, ether or chloroform, 
and in alkalies; forming red solutions with green fluorescence, 
which if KHO or NaHO is employed, exhibits a characteristic 
absorption band in d between b and / 'of the spectrum, which 
is less marked if NH 4 HO is employed. The fluorescence is 
especially noticeable in theammoniacal zinc solutions of urobilin, 
being ruby red with transmitted and green with reflected light, 
which can be shown in urine containing it, by first adding 
NH 4 HO in excess, filtering and adding a little zinc chloride 
solution. 

To detect urobilin in urine the latter reaction is employed 
and observed in the spectroscope, or when it fails, urine is 
shaken with an equal volume of ether, which is decanted, evapo- 
rated, and the residue dissolved in alcohol. This solution gives 
the characteristic absorption band. In the urine of icterus 
urobilin can be readily detected after precipitating the biliary 



URINARY COLORING BODIES. 105 

pigments with milk of lime and carbonic acid; also by precipi- 
tating urine with basic lead acetate solution, and drying the 
washed precipitate, extracting this with alcohol and treating 
with a little H 2 SO^ and filtering after 24 hours. Urobilin can 
be shown by its fluorescence if treated with NH 4 HO and zinc 
chloride, or if treated with water or chloroform. If the latter 
solution is treated with a little tincture of iodine and KHO, a 
marked brownish-yellow color is obtained, showing green 
efflorescence. 

Urochrome and uromelanin, already mentioned elsewhere, are 
urinary pigments of minor importance, belonging under this 
head. 

The most important and interesting urinary pigment, as it 
might be termed, is the Indigogen or indoxylsulphuric acid 
commonly named 

Indican [iiroxanthhi), potassic indoxylsulphate (C 8 H 6 NS0 4 K), 
which in the presence of slightly oxidizing bodies and HC1 
splits into indigo and potassic sulphate, distinct from the indican 
of vegetable origin, which is a glucoside, and with acids or 
ferments forms indigo and indiglucin which reduces the alka- 
line cupric solution. In the normal urine 4.5 to 19.5 milli- 
grams of it are said to be present in 1500 c.c, or an average 
of 6.6 milligrams in 1000 c.c, which is increased in intestinal 
obstructions, where it was in one case on record increased 
to 98.4 milligrams. In acute peritonitis it is also increased, 
also in Addison's disease, progressive atrophy of the muscles, 
cholera, and in all chronic affections ; while in anaemia, chlorosis, 
leukaemia, it is diminished. In the tropics the urine is said to 
be especially rich in indican. To detect indican in urine it is 
mixed with equal volumes of HC1 to which is added a few 
drops of saturated solution of chloride of lime, until a red- 
violet or greenish-blue color appears, according to the amount 
present, which is imparted to chloroform if shaken well with it. 

For the quantitative determination of indican comparison of 
color tints is employed. To this purpose a standard solution 
containing a known strength of indigo in a certain volume of 
chloroform is made by dissolving finely pow T dered indigo in 
chloroform, and by weighing the residue of undissolved indigo,, 
the strength of the solution being noted. Then a known 

8 



106 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

volume of urine is treated with an equal volume of HC1, to 
which, gradually, a saturated solution of chloride of lime is 
added drop by drop, shaking each time until the maximum 
blue color is developed ; this is then shaken with chloroform 
until the latter has taken up all the color. This chloroform 
solution compared with an equal volume of the standard solu- 
tion which is brought with more well known quantities of 
chloroform to an equal shade, is then computed for the amount 
of volume, corresponding to the same amount of indigo, and 
this adapted to the known volume of urine. 

ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE. 

The principal of these are albumin, peptones, mucin, sugar, 
acetone, blood, biliary pigments and acids, cystin, leucin and 
tyrosin, allantoin, fats and fatty acids. 

Albumin. — Although this is not a normal constituent of urine, 
it has been shown to exist in normal urine, both temporarily as 
well as permanently in minute quantities (up to T \ per cent.). 
Its presence in urine indicates a pathic condition termed albu- 
minuria, which maybe true or false, according to its occurrence 
in consequence of renal disease, or as depending on the pres- 
ence of other albuminous substances, such as pus, blood, etc., 
which can be distinguished besides the chemical tests, common 
to both, by microscopic examination. The albumins present in 
urine are principally serum-albumin and globulin, of which the 
recognition of the former is of the greatest importance for the 
physician. 

Urine containing albumin is of pale color and low specific 
gravity, and according to the severity of the case, albumen may 
be found therein in quantities of from ^ to I and even 4 per 
cents. 

For testing, it should be clear or cleared by filtration and its 
reaction ascertained, which if alkaline or neutral, should be 
rendered slightly acid by a few drops of acetic acid. Should 
acetic acid produce a precipitate of mucin, this should be sepa- 
rated, and the urine then boiled in a test tube, when any 
albumin present will coagulate (serum-albumin coagulates at 
72°-75°), and rendered readily perceptible. The character 
of the precipitate as albumin should be further confirmed by 



ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE. IO7 

addition of a few drops of nitric acid, which, if the precipitates 
were phosphates, would rapidly dissolve it, but will not affect 
coagulated albumin (turbid urine, clearing up on heating, con- 
tains urates in excess). To test urine with HN0 3 , the latter 
should be admixed in I volume of the acid to 2 of urine, but 
with better success and greater delicacy the test is effected by 
putting a quantity of HN0 3 into a wide test-tube and allowing 
the urine to flow over the surface from the sides of the tube 
with a pipette, when albumin will be indicated by a well-defined 
white or opalescent zone between the acid and urine, which can 
be distinctly observed with reflected light, when the tube is 
placed against a dark background. Should another zone 
appear due to excess of urates, this latter will disappear when 
warmed. — Boedecker's Test. — Consists in acidifying urine with 
acetic acid, when, if albumin is present, a precipitate will occur 
on the addition of a solution of potassic ferrocyanide. Picric 
acid Test (Galipe). — If, to albuminous urine, a few drops of a 
saturated solution of picric acid are added, a yellowish-white 
precipitate will occur. Peptones are also precipitated by it. 
Metaphosphoric acid. — Will precipitate albumin completely. If 
a crystal of trichloracetic acid is added to albuminous urine, it 
will dissolve and form a turbid zone. Tanrefs solution. — Con- 
taining potassic iodide 3.32 grams, mercuric chloride 1.35 grams, 
acetic acid 20 ex., and water 64 c.c, will give a white precipitate 
with albuminous urine. Phospho-Uingstic acid. — Precipitates 
even very small amounts of albumin, but also peptones. 

Comparative approximation of albumin can be effected by 
boiling acidulated urine in a test tube of the same capacity, and 
containing the same quantity, and after setting aside for a while, 
noting the volume of the deposit comparatively with the amount 
of urine tested. In this manner clinical observation may be 
conducted from day to day, with fair results, as to the increase 
or decrease of albumin in the urine. 

Quantitative determination of albumin is best conducted by 
precipitating it from a certain volume of urine, acidulated with 
a few drops of acetic acid, adding, if needed, a little more acetic 
acid to favor separation of precipitate, and throwing it on a 
well-dried (at I io°), and weighed filter ; the precipitate is washed 
with boiling water, rendered slightly alkaline with NH^HO, sub- 



108 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

sequently washed with alcohol and ether dried at I io°, and 
weighed and the difference between filter, and filter -f- precipi- 
tate, noted as albumin. 

Albuminous urine may be analyzed by means of polarimetry, 
if no sugar is present, after being well cleared, first with acetic 
acid and then with milk of lime; but this is hardly applicable 
to urines containing only small quantities of albumin. 

For the volumetric estimation of albumin in urine, Tanret's 
solution (see above) is best suited, if no peptones or alkaloids 
are present therein. I c.c. corresponds to I decigram of 
albumin. It is added carefully, drop by drop, from a burette 
to the urine, stirring well and allowing precipitate to subside. 
When a drop added to the supernatant liquid, or some of the 
filtered urine fails to give a further precipitate the operation is 
completed. 

Peptones. — The presence of peptones in the urine after 
poisoning by phosphorus and in suppurative processes, in 
pneumonia and in reabsorption of fibrinous exudations, makes 
its detection in urine of some importance for the clinician. To 
do this, urine is acidulated with a little acetic acid and boiled to 
separate the albumin, if present. To completely do so, the 
filtrate may be treated with lead acetate, filtered, one-fifth 
volume of acetic acid added to filtrate, and then the peptone 
precipitated with sodic phospho-tungstate, acidified with acetic 
acid, also Tanret's test or picric acid. Its presence can be 
shown with any of these reagents in absence of albumin, or with 
Fehling's solution to which it gives a pinkish color. 

Mucin. — Though principally found suspended as secreted by 
the congested membranes of the urinary tract, it may also be 
found in solution in the urine, and is of importance principally 
on account of its interference with the detection of other abnor- 
mal constituents. As already stated, after separation of the 
flocculent mucin in the urine by filtration, the dissolved portion 
thereof is readily precipitated by acetic acid at ordinary tem- 
perature. 

Sugar. — The presence of grape sugar in urine, although 
claimed by some as a normal component of urine in minimal 
quantities, and probably present as such under certain con- 
ditions, is, when found therein in more than traces certainly 



ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE. IO9 

indicative of grave lesions. Its detection and quantitative 
determination form a valuable diagnostic aid to medicine. 
The urine of diabetes mellitus or melituria is one of high 
specific gravity, 1030-1050, very pale color, voided in greatly 
increased quantities from 2500-5000, or 6000 c.c. in 24 hours, 
and, as a rule, it contains from 4-5 per cent, of sugar, but this 
may be increased to 8 or 10 per cent, and over. It has a pecu- 
liar odor, a persistent froth after shaking, and leaves a syrupy, 
sticky residue on evaporation. 

Qualitative Tests. — For the purpose of testing urine for sugar 
it should be filtered, and, if albumin is present, this should be 
separated. Moore's Test. — Requires the mixing of urine with 
an equal volume of potassic hydrate solution, when, if heated, 
it will turn yellow and brown, the latter if sugar is present in 
sufficient quantities, and an odor reminding of molasses will be 
noticeable. Mulder-Neiibauer 's Test. — Depends on rendering 
the urine alkaline with sodic carbonate and adding enough 
indigo solution (potassic sulphindigotate) to render it percep- 
tibly blue, which color will turn violet, and finally yellow on 
boiling, if sugar is present, and on cooling and agitation the 
blue color reappears. Boettgers Test. — If urine mixed with an 
equal volume of sodic carbonate (1-3) and a little bismuthyl 
nitrate (subnitrate) added, is boiled for a little while, it will turn 
brown and black if sugar is present, from the reduction of the 
bismuth salt. As this test may prove fallacious from the pres- 
ence of sulphur compounds, care is to be taken to separate all 
the albumin and testing the urine by boiling with potassic hydrate 
solution in the presence of lead acetate paper. If this is black- 
ened this test is not admissible. Trommer s Test. — Urine, some- 
what diluted and treated with an equal volume of potassic hydrate 
solution and a little cupric sulphate added to it, to render a blue 
solution, is boiled; when near the boiling point a yellowish-red 
precipitate is occasioned, sugar is present, cuprous oxide being 
formed. Fehling's solution (a.v.) may also be employed quali- 
tatively. Picric acid. — If added in saturated solution to an equal 
volume of urine, with an addition of a few drops of potassic 
hydrate solution, when heated will yield a reddish-brown color 
if sugar is present. 



110 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Quantitative estimation of sugar is accomplished by several 
methods. 

Saccharimetry by Polarization. — The urine for this purpose 
should be clear and not much colored, nor containing any 
albumin. When the container is filled, care must be taken that 
it is clear and contains no free water from cleaning, to which 
end it should be previously rinsed with a portion of the urine 
to be examined. Air bubbles must also be excluded from the 
container before it is put in place. The analyzer is then rotated 
until the two halves of the field separated by the dark line 
(which should be made distinct by adjustment of the telescope) 
assume again both the same tints as the polarimeter showed 
with a non-active fluid when at zero. To guard against error a 
number of observations are made and noted and the mean 
thereof set down as angle observed, = a, while W. would 
stand for weight of sugar in grams in I c.c. urine and /. for 
length of column in decimeters. Knowing the specific rotary 
power as 57.6 — -|- \_a] D , we can find W. by the following for- 
mula: W= ^ Thus if the angle observed were 2. =5°, the 

length of the column I decimeter, the amount of sugar con- 

2 K 
tained in 1 c.c. urine would be — — = 0.043 grams, or in 

57-6 xi 4J B 

100 c.c. = 4.3 grams, which would be the percentage of sugar 
contained in this urine. To obtain the percentage at once the 
angle observed is multiplied by 1 00 and divided by the specific 
rotation if a one decimeter tube is used. 

Though apparently easy, the observations are not sufficiently 
reliable, especially with the unpracticed eye, to entitle this 
method to great accuracy, though it is for clinical purposes 
quite sufficient. 

Fermentation Test. — This, like the previous method, yields 
only approximate results, but sufficiently correct for medical 
purposes. It is utilized in three different manners; first, by 
fermenting a certain volume of saccharine urine by means of 
yeast, measuring the amount of carbonic acid gas liberated, 
and computing the corresponding weight of sugar to the meas- 
ure of the gas ; secondly, by fermenting a certain volume of 
saccharine urine by means of yeast and causing the carbonic 



ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE. I 1 1 

acid gas liberated to be absorbed by a known quantity of potassic 
hydrate solution, and ascertaining the amount of carbonic acid, 
so absorbed, by weight ; 48.89 C0 2 , correspond to 100 sugar; 
and thirdly, by observing the specific gravity of saccharine 
urine, exposing it to fermentation with yeast at 25 ° until fer- 
mentation ceases, when the difference in each degree of spe- 
cific gravity will indicate 0.2196 grams grape sugar in 10 c.c. 
urine. The urine in the fermentation test should be slightly 
alkaline or rendered so by the addition of a little sodic carbon- 
ate ; the yeast should be fresh and the liquid kept at a tempera- 
ture of 25 ° for at least 24 hours. 

Fehling's Test. — This is undoubtedly the most accurate 
and most practical for clinical purposes. It depends upon the 
reduction by glucose of the cupric salt present in alkaline solu- 
tions to cuprous hydrate at the boiling point. The standard 
alkaline cupric solution for the volumetric analysis of glucose is 
unstable and should either be made fresh when wanted, or pre- 
ferably, kept in two separate solutions, to be mixed in equal 
volumes as needed. 

(1.) Copper solution : 34.65 grams of pure crystallized cupric 
sulphate, not effloresced, broken into small fragments which 
are deprived of any adhering water of crystallization by press- 
ing them gently with bibulous paper, are dissolved in suf- 
ficient warm water and the solution brought with water to 
500 c.c. 

(2.) Alkaline solution: 173 grams pure crystallized sodium 
potassium tartrate are dissolved in 350 c.c. of solution of sodic 
hydrate, specific gravity 1.33, and diluted with water to make 
500 c.c. 

The urine to be examined is first filtered, if not perfectly 
clear, and a certain quantity of it is diluted either with nine 
volumes of water, or if the specific gravity is very high with 
19 volumes thereof. 10 c.c. of the mixed solutions of the test 
are then placed in a porcelain capsule and diluted with 4 times 
its volume of water. The capsule, is placed on a wire gauze 
over the open flame, and the test brought to the boiling point ; 
the urine, as above diluted, is now allowed to flow into it, drop 
by drop, from a burette, which is filled to the topmost mark. 

After every few drops the contents of the capsule are allowed 



112 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

to boil for a few seconds, amidst stirring, and the gradual dis- 
coloration of the cupric solution is to be closely observed, by 
allowing the deposit to settle and tilting the capsule slightly to 
discover the presence of blue coloration. At the point when 
the discoloration is complete the process is finished. This can 
be more accurately determined by taking a few drops of the 
clear supernatant liquid from the capsule on a small porcelain 
slab, adding a drop of acetic acid, when, on addition of a drop 
of potassic ferrocyanide, no brown precipitate should occur 
(absence of copper), or by filtering a portion and applying the 
same test. If, however, a little portion of Fehling's solution is 
added to the filtered or supernatant clear liquid and boiled, and 
a reduction takes place, the process has been continued too far 
and must be commenced over again. The amount of urine 
drawn from the burette during the test is now noted, and as this 
has decomposed 10 c.c. of the test, it contained 0.05 of grape 
sugar. Thus if 16 c.c. of the diluted urine (1 in 10) corre- 
sponded to 0.05 sugar, 1.6 c.c. urine contained that much. To 
obtain the percentage compute as following: 1.6: 0.05 = 100 : x; 
= 3.1 per cents. If the urine had been diluted with 19 volumes 
of water and 16 c.c. would represent 0.05 sugar, ] £' =0.8 urine 
would contain 0.05 and 0.8: 0.05 = 100 : x; x = 6.2 per 
cents. 

Acetone (C 3 H 6 0). — Dimethyl-carbon monoxide, CO^ pu' 

a colorless liquid of pleasant odor, soluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether, specific gravity 0.814. This is of importance to the 
physician owing to its occasional presence in the blood of 
melituria, attributed to a fermentation of grape sugar induced 
by a special ferment. While it is recognized by its odor when 
present in large quantities, it is necessary to show its existence 
in the urine when the symptoms indicate it. This is done by 
the addition of a little ferric chloride, which will turn it red- 
dish-brown. 

Blood. — The presence of blood in the urine, haematuria, 
may be due to different causes, and may be characterized by 
different color. This may be blood-red, brownish-red, black, 
and even dirty greenish-brown. The bright-red is due to fresh 
corpuscles and haemoglobin, the brownish to broken down cor- 



ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE. II3 

puscles and methsemoglobin, the black to disoxidized haemo- 
globin, and the greenish-brown, strongly alkaline and ichorous 
in appearance, contains blood and pus in larger proportions. 
While the microscope must give information as to blood cor- 
puscles, as well as their condition and amount, the spectroscope 
will have to be employed to define their component parts. 
Thus, oxyhemoglobin, if present, will be noted by the two 
absorption bands in yellow and green between D and E of the 
spectrum. If the absorption band cannot be seen the urine is 
to be treated with lead acetate in excess, the precipitate filtered 
off and treated with a little water, in which it is decomposed 
with sodic carbonate, the precipitated lead carbonate removed 
and the filtrate examined with the spectroscope. Chemically 
the oxyhemoglobin can be confirmed by shaking well together 
equal volumes of old spirits of turpentine and fresh tincture of 
guaiac ; if some of this is poured into a little urine containing 
blood, a blue resinous precipitate will ensue. Also, if to a little 
urine a few drops of tincture of guaiac are added and the mix- 
ture shaken with ozonic ether, an ethereal solution of hydrogen 
peroxide, the presence of blood will be proven by the blue col- 
oration of the ether. 

The presence of hcematin is established by Heller's test, as 
following: Two volumes of urine are mixed with one KHO 
solution, 1 : 3. On warming this a precipitate of the earthy 
phosphates will take place, which, while white or grayish in 
normal urine, will be found of a red or rosy tint if hsematin is 
present. 

Hcemin can be proven by preparing haemin-crystals for mi- 
croscopic examination as follows : The precipitate obtained to 
show the haematin, or even the albuminous coagulation from 
boiling urine containing blood, is spread on a microscopic slide 
and dried with gentle heat. Add a few morsels of NaCl and 
rub with a knife into the sediment until the salt is finely 
divided, blowing off the surplus and adding a drop of glacial 
acetic acid to the slide; cover them with a cover glass, adding 
a few more drops acetic acid to float the cover glass, and warm 
the slide until the acid begins to boil, adding glacial acetic acid 
subsequently as long as it evaporates; when cool examine 



114 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

under microscope, when dark-brown long rhombic lamellae of 
haemin will be seen. 

Biliary Pigments and Acids. — The diagnosis of icterus 
makes it at times desirable to show the presence of these in 
this condition. The urine under such circumstances presents 
a dark yellowish-brown color, at times more extensively yel- 
low or brown, and on shaking has a more than usual lasting 
yellow froth. The quantity remains about as usual; in reac- 
tion it is acid, clear, and free from albumin. The appearance 
of froth, color, and reaction is largely due to the presence of 
the biliary pigments and acids. The presence of the pigments 
can be demonstrated by the Gmelin's test, which depends on 
the oxidation of the bilirubin by nitric acid and the play of 
colors occasioned by it. If a little of such urine is touched 
with nitric acid on a plate or porcelain slab, there will be a play 
of colors from red to violet into green, perceptible at the 
points of contact. The addition of a little H^SO^ will improve 
the reaction, as the presence of a little nitrous acid is nec- 
essary to show it well. The same play of colors will be 
noticed if the filter, still wet with urine, is touched with a drop 
of HN0 3 . The Gmelin's test is occasionally not noticeable at 
once. Heller's test is to add albumin to the urine before add- 
ing HN0 3 , and noting the green or bluish color of precipitate. 
The pigments may be precipitated with either basic lead acetate 
or milk of lime; if with the former, after separating the precipi- 
tate, this is decomposed with H 2 S ; with the latter it is acidu- 
lated with H 2 S0 4 ; if treated either with alcohol or chloroform, 
it imparts a beautiful green color by the lime process, while the 
chloroform extracted from the lead precipitate is distinctly yel- 
low, turned green by H 2 S0 4 , answers the Gmelin's test, and ex- 
hibits a play of colors on addition of a little bromine water. 

The biliary acids are not as readily detected and need isola- 
tion in case of doubt to establish their identity. Generally the 
application of Pettenkofer's reaction will suffice. This is easily 
applied by dissolving some cane sugar in the urine and filter- 
ing. The filter is allowed to dry, and touched with a drop of 
H 2 S0 4 , when a beautiful violet color will appear, growing 
darker and purple. This is a very delicate test. To isolate 
the biliary acids treat the urine with basic lead acetate and a 



ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE. I I 5 

little NH 4 HO, filter and wash precipitate with hot alcohol, 
which dissolves the biliary lead salts. The alcoholic extracts 
are then decomposed with sodic carbonate and evaporated to 
dryness. The dry residue is extracted again with boiling 
alcohol and concentrated, then a little ether added to it ; set 
aside in a vial it will soon exhibit the precipitation of the biliary 
acids, which can be confirmed and recognized by the other 
tests. 

Cy stin. — The presence of this body in urine characterizes a 
condition known as cystinuria, which, as a hereditaiy tendency 
for the formation of cystic calculi, is of some importance to the 
physician. It is, by far, more prevalent as a urinary sediment 
and urinary concretion (q.v.). 

To demonstrate cystin in urine in solution, the urine is treated 
with a little acetic acid which soon produces a turbidity, and 
after twelve to twenty-four hours, fine crystals of cystin will be 
formed at the bottom of the vessel, which can readily be distin- 
guished by the microscope. Quantitatively cystin may be deter- 
mined by treating 500 c.c. urine with 20 c.c. acetic acid (20 per 
cent), and setting the mixture aside for twenty -four hours, when 
the cystin will have separated in crystals, along with some uric 
acid, calcic oxalate, and also sodic urate. The sediment is 
gathered on a tared filter, washed with dilute acetic acid, and 
then dried and weighed. The cystin left on the filter is now 
dissolved with dilute HC1, and the amount determined by the 
difference between the dried filter containing it and the dried filter 
from which it has been dissolved. 

Leucin and Tyrosin. — The presence of leucin and tyrosin in 
the urine points to an imperfect oxidation of the albuminoids. 
To detect them in the fresh urine, this is precipitated with basic 
lead acetate ; separate the precipitate by filtration, and treat the 
filtrate with H 2 S, until all the lead is separated ; filter again and 
evaporate filtrate to syrupy consistence ; set aside in a cool 
place until the leucin and tyrosin have separated into crystalline 
warty masses. To separate the tyrosin, treat the latter with 
boiling alcohol, filter, when on cooling the leucin will crystallize 
out. 

Allantoin. — This is found in the urine of the new-born, within 
the first eight days, and in the urine of pregnant women. It is 



Il6 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

detected by treating urine with baryta water, separating the 
baryta by exact saturation with H 2 S0 4 , and treating the alkaline 
filtrate with sufficient mercuric chloride to produce a precipitate. 
If acid, it is neutralized with NaHO. The precipitates are then 
treated with H 2 S ; evaporated, when, on cooling, allantoin will 
crystallize out, which can be recrystallized from hot water for 
microscopic inspection. 

Fats are, at times, present in the urine, either in solution, emul- 
sified, or in suspension as globules. It has been shown in 
chyluria, in fatty degeneration of the kidneys, and in some 
vesical affections ; also, in phthisis and affections of the pan- 
creas and liver, as the result of certain poisons (phosphorus), and 
along with diabetes. 

Besides their detection under the microscope, they can be 
demonstrated by evaporating the urine, and incinerating the 
residue, when the presence of fat will give rise to the irritating 
vapors of acreolin. From the dry evaporate, the fats can also 
be readily separated with petroleum-benzin, and on the evapora- 
tion thereof quantitatively determined. 

ADVENTITIOUS SUBSTANCES IN URINE. 

Under this head must be considered all such substances of 
diet or therapeutic agents which are eliminated from the body, 
to a greater or less extent, by the urinary apparatus. Their 
detection is not alone of importance in toxicology, but also to 
determine the efficiency and sufficiency of medicinal agents and 
their doses. While many of these bodies are not eliminated 
directly, but as compounds with other material in the system, 
and as oxidation or reduction products, others can be recovered 
from the urine, without having undergone any chemical change. 
Thus, while the chlorates of the alkalies can, already ten 
minutes after ingestion, be traced in the urine, when taken 
in sufficient doses, they are, when taken in small quantities, 
sometimes eliminated as chlorides, while the bromates and 
iodates reappear in the urine as iodides and bromides, and the 
chlorides, bromides and iodides are eliminated unchanged. The 
carbonates of the alkalies reappear in the urine when taken in 
sufficient quantities, and render it alkaline ; the acids as neutral 
salts, sulphur and sulphides as sulphates, while the alkaline 



ADVENTITIOUS SUBSTANCES IN URINE. 11/ 

earths and the metals are eliminated with the urine only to a 
slight extent. 

Alcohol reappears only in small quantities in the urine, being 
oxidized in the body ; chloroform, when administered for some 
time, and chloral are eliminated as urochloralic acid, and, while 
oxalic, citric and tartaric acids are oxidized and render the 
urine alkaline, tannic acid is eliminated as gallic acid, whereas 
the latter and pyrogallic acid reappear in the urine unchanged, 
as well as many of the odorifera, and most of the alkaloids. 

The Chlorides are shown by the usual reactions already dwelt 
upon under the normal constituents of urine, their increased 
presence by their quantitative determination. 

Chlorates. — Of these the most important is potassic chlorate, 
which is detected by adding a few drops of indigo solution. If 
to this mixture, acidulated with H 2 S0 4 , a few drops of sulphur- 
ous acid are carefully added, chlorine is liberated, which will 
decolorize the indigo. 

Bromides are detected by evaporating 500 c.c. urine with 
about 3 grams sodic hydrate or carbonate. The incinerated 
residue is then dissolved, filtered, and, if treated either with 
chlorine or chlorine water, and shaken with ether, the latter is 
colored yellow from free bromine, which, upon shaking with 
an alkaline hydrate, is decolorized. If, instead of ether, chloro- 
form or carbon bisulphide is used, they will be colored yellowish- 
red. 

Iodides. — Urine, to be tested for them, is treated as in the 
test for bromides, but to the watery solution of the ashes a little 
starch mucilage is added, and subsequently chlorine water, or 
a few drops of nitric acid. In either case, if iodides are present, 
the characteristic, dark-blue color of starch iodide will be de- 
veloped; or, if the solution of the ashes is treated with chlorine 
water, chlorine, or HN0 3 , in the presence of chloroform or 
carbon bisulphide, and these are well shaken and then allowed 
to separate, the latter will show a beautiful violet color. 

Arsenic. — This is found in the urine in cases of poisoning, as 
well as after continued medication with that substance, and oc- 
curs therein as an alkaline arsenite. To detect it, the urine is 
evaporated to syrupy consistence, to which about 20 per cent. 
HC1 is added, and then potassic chlorate in small doses until 



Il8 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

decolorized, while the mixture is kept on a water-bath. After 
all the free chlorine has been liberated, it is filtered, and the 
filtrate tested by the Fleitmann's or Marsh's test. 

Mercury. — To demonstrate its presence in urine, the quantity 
voided in several days is condensed, treated with HC1 and po- 
tassic chlorate, until all organic admixtures are oxidized ; after 
this it is filtered, and the filtrate treated by electrolysis for about 
twenty-four hours, with a gold wire as cathode and a platinum 
slip as anode. The mercury present will be deposited on the 
golden cathode, which is clipped off, introduced in a hard glass 
tube drawn out fine at one end. After the wire is entered into 
this, the other end is closed, and the part containing the wire 
heated until the volatilized mercury is deposited on the cooler 
portion of the tube, when it can be recognized by the introduc- 
tion of a little iodine, which, if vaporized, forms mercuric iodide 
with mercury if present. 

Lead. — The detection of this in urine is often of great im- 
portance, in connection with the diagnosis of lead-poisoning. It 
is accomplished by concentrating the urine over the water-bath, 
oxidizing the organic ingredients as above, and treating the 
residue with H 2 S ; or by incinerating the residue of the water- 
bath, dissolving in HN0 3 , diluting and testing also by H 2 S. 

The alkaloids, as already stated, are generally eliminated 
without chemical change, and can be detected by their special 
tests given under the respective headings, the urine being duly 
concentrated, and the alkaloid to be tested for, separated by its 
best solvent. 

URINARY SEDIMENTS. 

While often of importance in a diagnostic way, they are of 
more interest to the pathologist and microscopist than the 
chemist, as their form, generally distinguishable under the 
microscope, would readily indicate their composition, with- 
out chemical tests. They are classified as organized and un- 
organized ; the former comprise mucin, blood, with its red and 
pale corpuscles, pus and the corpuscles thereof, epithelium in 
its various forms, according to their respective sources, and the 
cylinder casts of the various renal affections. Another feature 
of urinary sediments form the micro-organisms abounding 



URINARY SEDIMENTS. I I9 

therein very often, and known as micrococci, bacteria, bacilli, 
schistomycetes, saccharomycetes, etc., the recognition of which 
under the microscope forms a special part of modern pathology. 

The unorganized sediments differ according to the media in 
which they occur. 

Thus, in urine of acid reaction the following may be found 
in amorphous form: sodic and potassic urate; in crystals: uric 
acid, calcic oxalate, cystin, leucin, and tyrosin. 

In urine, of alkaline reaction, the following may occur : 
amorphous : neutral calcic phosphate, calcic carbonate ; crystal- 
line: ammonic urate, ammonio-magnesic phosphate (triple phos- 
phate), secondary calcic phosphate, and magnesic phosphate. 

To obtain the sediments, urine should be allowed to subside 
for twenty-four hours in a conical glass, when it can be either 
separated by decantation, or preferably by means of a pipette, 
transferred to the slide of a microscope and then examined. 
Their behavior with acetic acid or potassic hydrate solution is 
as follows : 

Soluble in Acetic Acid. — Triple phosphate. 

Calcic phosphate, without effer- 
vescence. 

Calcic carbonate, with effer- 
vescence. 

Urates, with subsequent ap- 
pearance of uric acid crystals. 

Insoluble in Acetic Acid. — Uric acid. 

Calcic oxalate. 

Tyrosin. 

Leucin. 

Cystin. 

Hippuric acid. 

Fats. 

With Acetic Acid. — i?/<%></-corpuscles swell up and are 

decolorized. 
Leucocytes become pale, nuclei ren- 
dered visible if stained with car- 
mine. 



120 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

With Acetic Acid. — Epithelial cells are rendered trans- 
parent, nuclei visible if stained with 
carmine. 

Cylinder casts are rendered trans- 
parent. 

Fibrin becomes transparent, and 
swells up in gelatinous mass. 

Mucin is rendered more distinct and 
striated or punctated. 
Soluble in io per cent. Potassic-hydrate Solution. — 

Urates. 

Uric acid. 

Blood corpuscles. 

Leucocytes. 

Epithelium, nuclei disappear, cell 
swelling up with indistinct outline. 

Casts. 

Fibrin and mucus. 
Insoluble in io per cent. Potassic-hydrate Solution. — 

Triple phosphate. 

Calcic phosphate, carbonate and oxa- 
late. 

Spores, vibriones, bacteria. 

Spermatozoce. 

Vegetable filaments. 

CURSORY EXAMINATION OF URINE. 

Though a complete examination of the urine, for all its com- 
ponents, qualitatively as well as quantitatively, may be necessary 
under certain circumstances, it will generally suffice for ordinary 
purposes as a diagnostic aid or to observe the progress of a 
pathic condition, to examine urine for special components only, 
or to point out and determine others which, on examination, may 
indicate special conditions. The apparatus and tests for this pur- 
pose consist of a microscope, test-tubes, watch glasses, funnel 
and filters, urinometer, burette and capsule, pipette, graduate, and 
ureometer; test-papers (litmus and turmeric), nitric acid, hydro- 
chloric acid, sulphuric acid, acetic acid, potassic or sodic hydrate 
solution, ammonic hydrate, argentic nitrate solution, baric chlo- 



URINARY CONXRETIONS. 121 

ride solution, Fehling's test (in separate solutions), and sodic 
hypochlorite solution (solution of chlorinated soda). 

The quantity for twenty-four hours should first be measured, 
the reaction and color and presence or character of sediment 
noted, and then the specific gravity obtained, from which the 
total amount of solids is computed. If necessary to establish 
the presence or absence of normal ingredients or their excess, 
this is accomplished as pointed out under chlorides, phosphates, 
sulphates, urea, and uric acid, but, when indications make this 
superfluous, and abnormal constituents only are to be looked 
for, the presence or absence of albumin is determined, the color 
of the precipitate indicating the presence of blood or bile pig- 
ments. The presence or absence and quantity of sugar is then 
ascertained, and also indican if desirable, and such other con- 
stituents, normal, abnormal, or adventitious, as the condition of 
the patient may indicate. 

URINARY CONCRETIONS. 

The chemical condition of the urine gives rise at times, after 
secernation, to the separation therefrom of solids, which, ac- 
cording to laws of crystallization or aggregation, may form 
themselves into solid bodies, found in the course of the urinary 
tract, and may there give rise to serious results. Their loca- 
tion, as already stated, may be anywhere within the urinary 
tract, either in the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, or the 
prostate. Their appearance would vary with their location 
or composition. Their size is from that of a pin's head to the 
size of a small apple. The large or vesical calculi may be 
round or oviform, smooth or tuberculated (mulberry calculi). 
Their consistence may be hard or soft, and their structure is 
generally composed of concentric layers, often of different com- 
position. They usually contain a nucleus, which may be mucin 
or fibrin, or a foreign body, around which the concentric aggre- 
gations accumulate. They have been classed accordingly as of 
primary formation, i. e., such, where the nucleus consists of a 
sediment of the acid urine, or of secondary formations, which 
consist of aggregations from the alkaline urine around a foreign 
nucleus. 

The concreting substances of the primary formation are prin- 

9 



122 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

cipally uric acid, urates, calcic oxalate and cystin, while those 
of the secondary formation are calcic phosphate, carbonate and 
triplephosphate. The former, are, by far more prevalent, owing 
their existence to small uric acid nuclei formed in the kidneys. 
The recognition of the character of small calculi passed, is of 
importance, not alone with a view of an attempt at solution of 
that already formed, but certainly to the end of preventing in- 
crease of aggregation by proper therapy and diet. To this end 
particles passed with the urine should be subjected to micro- 
scopic examination, as their crystalline structure may already 
indicate their chemical composition, or where they are larger 
they should be washed from adhering matter and reduced to 
powder for this purpose. 

Chemical examination. — As larger calculi rarely consist of 
only one substance, but are usually composed of different layers 
of chemically different bodies, they should be first divided into 
two halves by a fine saw, or when this, on account of structure 
or size, is inadmissible, they should be ground down to one-half 
on a stone, when their different layers will be plainly visible, 
and may be separated with the object of distinct examination. 
Portions of the concrete are then reduced to fine powder to be 
tested by heating on platinum foil, which, according to the 
results obtained, may give three distinct classes, as follows : 

ist. Calculi, which on combustion leave no residue or com- 
paratively none. 

2d. Calculi, leaving, on combustion, a moderate residue only. 

3d. Calculi, which are not affected by heat or only to a very 
small extent. 

The first group of these comprises uric acid, ammonium 
urate, xanthin, cystin, proteid substances, fatty bodies, and indigo. 
Their presence would be determined as follows, the group to 
which they belong having been ascertained by combustion of 
the powder on platinum foil : 

I. Combustible: 

Uric acid. — A small quantity of the powdered concrete is 
treated with HN0 3 , and when evaporated leaves a yellow resi- 
due, which, after cooling, is treated with a drop of NH 4 HO, 
gives a purple color (murexid test). As this reaction also holds 



URINARY CONCRETIONS. I 23 

good for ammonic urate, uric acid alone can only be arrived at 
in the absence of the following reaction : 

Amnionic urate. — Treat the powdered concrete with a little 
hot water, which will dissolve ammonic urate, and but little 
uric acid ; decant watery solution, which, on cooling, will de- 
posit ammonium urate, and this, if boiled with KHO, will liber- 
ate ammonia, to be recognized by its odor, and by browning 
moist turmeric paper. 

In absence of the murexid reaction: 

Xanthin may be recognized by taking a portion of the powder, 
dissolving with a little HN0 3 , and evaporating. The yellow 
residue, if treated with KHO will turn yellowish-red. 

Cystin, is already indicated, when during combustion the 
vapors arising remind of the odor of hydrocyanic or sulphurous 
acid or both. The powder treated with HN0 3 is not colored 
by either KHO or NH 4 HO. If a specimen of the powdered 
concrete, containing cystin is treated with NH 4 HO, filtered and 
evaporated, hexagonal tables thereof will be detected under the 
microscope. 

Proteid substances are detected, when on combustion, vapors 
like of burning horn are given off. The powder dissolves in 
KHO, and is precipitated from the solution by HN0 3 in excess. 

UreostealitJi melts on heating, and gives off an aromatic odor 
reminding of benzoin. Is soluble in ether, also in warm solu- 
tion of KHO. 

Indigo gives purple vapors on combustion, yielding a dark 

blue crystalline sublimate. It is soluble in H 2 S0 4 with blue 

color. 

II. Partially Combustible : 

Comprising potassic urate, sodic urate, calcic urate, magnesic 
urate and calcic oxalate. 

Potassic urate gives the murexid reaction. The residue after 
combustion dissolves with water and gives alkaline reaction ; 
neutralized it gives a yellow precipitate with platinic chloride. 

Sodic urate gives the murexide reaction. The residue after 
combustion, dissolved in water with alkaline reaction, turns the 
flame of a Bunsen burner yellow. 

Calcic ttrate gives the murexid reaction. The residue, after 
combustion is almost insoluble in water, and only feebly alka- 



124 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

line, soluble in acetic acid. Solution gives a white crystalline 
precipitate with amnionic oxalate. 

Magnesic urate gives the murexid reaction. The residue, 
after combustion is almost insoluble in water, soluble in acetic 
acid. No precipitate with ammonic oxalate; with disodic phos- 
phate and ammonia a crystalline precipitate of triplephosphate. 

Calcic oxalate does not give murexid reaction. The pow- 
dered concrete is treated with acetic acid, in which it does not 
dissolve, but it dissolves in the mineral acids without efferves- 
cence. The residue, after moderate combustion is soluble in 
acids with effervescence. 

III. Incombustible: 

Comprising calcic carbonate, magnesic carbonate, triplephos- 
phate, neutral calcic phosphate. This group does not give the 
murexid reaction. 

Calcic carbonate. — The powder is treated with acetic acid, in 
which it readily dissolves with effervescence; solution gives a 
white crystalline precipitate with ammonic oxalate. 

Magnesic carbonate. — Treated with acetic acid the powdered 
concrete dissolves with effervescence. With disodic phos- 
phate and ammonia the solution gives a crystalline precipitate 
of ammonio-magnesic phosphate, triplephosphate. This fre- 
quently occurs together with basic calcic phosphate, but also 
alone. On heating, the powdered concrete fuses to a white 
enamel-like mass, with an odor of ammonia, which is made 
more distinct by the addition of KHO. 

Neutral calcic plwsphate. — Rarely met as calculus, but more 
often as passed with the urine. It is soluble in acids, without 
effervescence both before and after heating, and does not melt 
on heating - to redness. 



& 



BILIARY CONCRETIONS. 

These occur under the name of gall stones, both in the gall 
bladder and hepatic ducts ; they may be of various shapes, 
ovoid, cylindrical or globular, according to their location when 
formed, and of varying size, in an inverse proportion to the 
number present, which is often very large. Solitary ones exist, 
but are more rare than the multiple. 



BILIARY CONCRETIONS. 125 

Their color may be from white and translucent to dark-brown 
and black. They are largely composed of cholesterin, and if 
solely so, their color will be whitish-opaque and almost trans- 
lucent. At an average cholesterin forms about 70-80 per cent, 
of all gall stones. This can be recovered by treating the pow- 
dered calculus with hot alcohol, which dissolves some fat and 
the cholesterin, from which the latter will crystallize out on 
cooling, while the fat will remain to be determined on the 
subsequent evaporation of the alcohol. 

The biliary pigments, bilirubin, biliverdin and biliprasin are 
also found in biliary calculi, and often form, combined with lime, 
the nucleus thereof. These may be shown by first treating the 
residue of the alcohol extraction with a little HC1, which dis- 
solves the inorganic salts, and by effervescence indicates the 
presence of carbonates. The residue, after this is dissolved in 
alkaline watsr, on addition of HN0 3 containing a little H 2 S0 4 , 
gives their characteristic color reaction from green to blue, 
dissolving in violet, red, and lastly yellow. 

The biliary acids are also found in biliary concretions as 
calcic glycocholate, crystallizing in warty masses, resembling leu- 
cin and calcic cholates, crystallizing in needles. They are 
recognized by Pettenkofer's reaction. 

The compounds of the fatty acids forming soap-like bodies 
(calcic and magnesic stearate, etc.), are also present and some- 
times in considerable quantities. After removing the cholesterin 
with benzole, and treating the residue with HN0 3 , and evapo- 
rating they are separated by dissolving them out with alcohol. 

While iron is always present, copper is sometimes found in 
the colored calculi ; the ashes consist of calcic carbonate, sili- 
cates, and phosphates, and in some instances calcic carbonate 
forms the principal and even sole component. 

Besides the urinary and biliary concretions, pancreatic con- 
cretions deserve mention ; they are often excreted in consider- 
able quantities and mostly consist of calcic carbonate and 
phosphate. Preputial concretions may well be classed with 
those of the urinary tract as well as the prostatic calculi. Con- 
cretions of the ear, nose and tonsils, lachrymal and salivary 
ducts, sebaceous glands, bloodvessels, and intestines are known, 



120 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

but for practical purposes their chemical investigation is of no 
importance. 

F^CES AND THEIR ANALYSIS. 

Xext to urine the most important excretions are the faeces. 
They are complex in nature, containing besides undige 
food and water, biliarv excretions, changed in character and no 
longer answering their specific reagents. They are of neutral 
alkaline or acid reaction, and of a peculiar fetid odor, due to 
butyric, acetic and valerianic acids, and also hydrogen sulphide, 
and altered products of the pancreatic and intestinal digestion, 
Indol and Skatol. The microscopic examination exhibits both 
digestible, indigestible, and undigested material, crvstals of 
fatty acids, of cholesterin and also epithelial cells and mucin. 
The color depends upon the character of the nutritive material 
sted, and mav be in the normal state from light- vellow to 
dark-brown. Abnormally it may be white or gray, or as influ- 
enced bv medicinal agents, green or black. 

According to the analysis of Berzelius the average faeces 
from a mixed diet contain in ioo, water "55. solids 24.7; of 
which the extractives dissolved in the water were 3 ~ st- 

ing of albumen 0.9. salts of the biliary- acids 0.9, other extrac- 
tives 0.7. salts 1.2 j and the undissolved solids 21.0. c lg of 
mucus, fats and resins 14.0; the undigested and indigestible food 
residues 7.0. 

The total salts of the faeces were determined by Ranke to 
amount to 11. 14 to 12.14 per cent, of the total solids, and 
according to Enderlin (Carpenter's Physiology), are composed 

as follows : 

Soluble in Water. 

Alkaline chlorides and sulphates, ..... 1.367 

Trisodic phosphate, . . . . . . 2.t 

Insoluble in Water. 

"cic and magnesic phosphates, ..... Sd.}~2 

Ferric phosphate, ........ 2.090 

Calcic sulphate, ........ 4530 

Silica, 7-940 

The amount of water which should normally be about 75 per 
cent, is subject to various changes, owing to its reabsorption in 
constipation or its increase in large and rapid evacuations. 



FAECES AND THEIR ANALYSIS. \2J 

The solids passed in the human faeces in 24 hours amount to 
about 30 grams at an average. 

The normal faeces are altered in their composition either by 
an increase or absence of their normal components, or by the 
presence of abnormal exudation from the blood by perverted 
osmosis, as well as by the presence of biliary and intestinal se- 
cretions in their original condition, without having been applied 
to their digestive use and undergone modification. Besides 
these the faeces may abnormally contain large quantities of epi- 
thelial cells, as in catarrhal conditions of the intestines, cholera 
and dysentery, also blood and pus in dysentery and typhoid 
fever. Mucus is one of the commonest admixtures to faeces in 
catarrhal conditions of the bowels, and fats are frequently 
noticed in affections of the pancreas and liver. The lower order 
of micro-organisms always abound in abnormal faeces, and some 
of them are often found present in their normal state. 

In the alkaline dejecta of typhoid fever and dysentery, the 
triple phosphates are often found in large quantities. Leucin 
and tyrosin are found in cholera faeces, and urea and alloxan 
exist with fevers, uraemia and intestinal catarrh. 

While the evacuations of dysentery are rich in albumin and 
sodic chloride, and contain more or less unmodified bile, aside of 
their mechanical admixtures, those of typhoid fever contain 
albumin and alkaline chlorides, but generally no free bile. The 
dejecta of icteroid conditions, depending on occlusion of the 
bile duct, are grayish-white, containing no bile or biliary deriva- 
tives ; they are, however, rich in fats. 

Cholera evacuations contain large quantities of admixed epi- 
thelium, to which they owe their rice-water appearance. They 
contain but little albumin in solution, but large amounts of 
sodic chloride. The alvine discharges of infants often contain 
large quantities of coagulated casein and free bile, while after 
farinaceous food, starch is frequently present in quantities. 

Medicinal agents influence the color as well as composition 
of the faeces. Thus calomel renders it green in color and causes 
the presence of free bile. Iron is generally passed in the faeces 
as ferrous sulphide, and bismuth as the sulphide thereof; not to 
be confounded with the tarry black evacuations of altered blood. 

The analysis of the faeces for practical purposes, like that of 



128 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

the urine, must be more directed to the determination of abnor- 
mal products, or normal products in abnormal quantities, than 
to the complete determination of all its components. That in 
this way it may prove of great aid to diagnosis and the confir- 
mation thereof or the observation of the progress or cause of 
pathic conditions, is not to be denied, and it is to be regretted 
that it has never reached the important position that it is en- 
titled to. Nutritive treatment which takes a great part in the 
therapy of intestinal affections can only be controlled by the 
chemical examination of the dejecta. 

For the analysis of faeces for clinical purposes it is necessary 
to observe first of all the quantities voided in twenty 7 -four hours, 
and these should, by specially arranged vessels, be obtained 
free from the urinary excretion. The quantity (by weight) and 
the color being noted, they are diluted with a known quantity 
of water, with which they are totally detached from the vessel, 
and shaken in a closed cylinder or bottle until thoroughly dis- 
integrated. The reaction is then ascertained, and after subsi- 
dence of the solids the liquid is filtered off, the solids being 
gathered on the tared filter, and washed out well with another 
known quantity of water, and after draining are placed with the 
filter in a water bath or drying chamber at ioo°, until, after re- 
peated weighings, no further loss is experienced. The weight 
being noted, a known portion of the dry solids is then incinerated, 
and from the amount of ashes the percentage thereof computed. 
This computed for the total amount of solids, and with the 
total amount of salts, subsequently ascertained from the wash- 
ing, gives the total amounts of the salts present, which will show 
them to be either normal or abnormal in quantity 7 . 

Another portion of the dry solids is next exhausted with 
petroleum benzin, which will, on evaporation, leave the total 
amount of fats. The residue, after the benzin exhaustion, is 
well boiled with water, wherein the starch fecules will be dis- 
solved, to be shown by the blue color imparted to it by iodine. 
To test for metallic admixtures to faeces, treat a portion of the 
dry solids diluted with water with HC1 and potassic chlorate 
until a yellowish liquid remains, and test this according to the 
rules laid down elsewhere for the suspected admixture. 

For resinous admixtures the residue of the benzin extrac- 



SYLLABUS FOR PART IV. I 29 

tion is treated with stronger alcohol, from which, on evapora- 
tion or precipitation with water, they may be obtained together 
with some extractive. 

The washings of the faeces, as above obtained, are next tested 
for the amount of salts contained therein, by evaporation of a 
known quantity over the water-bath to dryness, and computa- 
tion for the whole amount. 

Another portion is tested for albumin as set forth under 
urine. A third known portion is tested for the amount of chlo- 
rides with the standard solution of argentic nitrate, in the man- 
ner described under the determination of chlorides in urine. 

Again test a portion with iodine for the presence of dissolved 
starch. 

Also apply Gmelin's test for bile pigments, and Pettenkofer's 
test for biliary acids. 

Test another portion with the sodic hypobromite solution for 
urea. (This will not always indicate its presence, unless rapidly 
discharged, as the urea in the faeces is soon changed to amnio- 
nic carbonate.) 

The presence of indol, skatol, and excretin are not of suffi- 
cient importance clinically to be considered in the analysis of 
faeces, and the presence of other components, such as epithelial 
cells, fibrin, blood, pus, leucin and tyrosin,and micro-organisms 
must be ascertained by the microscope. 

SYLLABUS FOR PART IV. 

(1.) The quantity of urine for twenty-four hours is collected 
and measured. 

(2.) Ascertain the reaction with blue litmus and turmeric 
paper. 

(3.) Determine its specific gravity by the urinometer, or by 
the specific gravity vial (picnometer). 

(4.) Determine amount of solids present, by multiplying the 
last two figures of the specific gravity by 2.33. 

(5.) Shake well and set aside a portion of it in a conical glass 
for the subsidence of sediment and subsequent examination. 

(6.) Treat with a little acetic acid to coagulate mucin, and 
separate this by filtration. 

(7.) Test for albumen by heating the filtered urine to the boil- 



130 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

ing point. If a coagulum appears, which is dissolved on addi- 
tion of a few drops of HNO s , the precipitate is not albumen, 
but earthy phosphates. If the coagulum is not cleared up by 
HNO3 it is albumen, and it may be greenish from biliary, or 
reddish-brown from blood coloring matter. 

(8.) Test for albumen with HN0 3 , picric acid, Tanret's solu- 
tion, and confirm with Millon's reagent. 

(9.) Determine albumen quantitatively by comparative ap- 
proximation, by weighing precipitated pure albumen when dry, 
or by Tanret's volumetric test. 

(10.) Separate albumen by boiling after acidulating with acetic 
acid, and test the filtered urine for peptone, with picric acid, also 
Fehling's test. 

(11.) Show the presence of sugar by Trommer's, Bcettger's, 
or Mulder-Neubauer's tests. 

(12.) Determine sugar quantitatively by polarimetry or Feh- 
ling's volumetric test. 

(13.) Test diabetic urine with ferric chloride for acetone. 

(14.) Test for blood by the guaiac and turpentine test (oxy- 
hemoglobin), also by Heller's test. 

(15.) Test for biliary coloring matter by Gmelin's test, also 
show by Heller's test. 

(16.) Show the presence of biliary acids by Pettenkoffer's test. 

(17.) Demonstrate urea in urine by crystallization. 

(18.) Determine amount of urea in urine by the hypobromite 
or hypochlorite process. . 

(19.) Show the presence of uric acid by the murexid test. 

(20.) Treat urine with an equal bulk of HC1, and add a few 
drops saturated solution of chlorinated lime, then shake with 
chloroform to show presence of indican. 

(21.) Precipitate the chlorides from urine, redissolve precipi- 
tated phosphates, and test the precipitated chloride with 
NH 4 HO. 

(22.) Precipitate phosphates with ammonic molybdate ; also 
separate the phosphates by the magnesia mixture as triple 
phosphate. 

(23.) Precipitate the sulphates from urine acidulated with 
acetic acid with baric chloride. 

(24.) Determine the presence of bromides in urine by evapo- 



SANITARY CHEMISTRY. I3I 

ration, incineration, solution of residue, and treatment with 
chlorine water and ether. 

(25.) Examine urine for iodides by evaporation, incineration, 
solution of residue, treating this with HN0 3 , and shaking with 
chloroform. 

(26.) Test urine for arsenic by concentrating, oxidizing or- 
ganic material, and after filtering, with Fleitmann's test. 

(27.) Evaporate urine and destroy organic ingredients with 
HC1 and potassic chlorate. Then filter, evaporate, and incin- 
erate ; dissolve residue, and treat with H 2 S for lead. 

(28.) Test a calculus by heating on platinum foil, if entirely, 
partially, or wholly combustible, and note character of residue. 

(29.) Test uric acid or urate calculus by the murexid test. 

(30.) A calculus is partly combustible, gives no murexid test, 
does not dissolve in acetic acid, but in mineral acids without 
effervescence. What is its composition ? 

(31.) Heat a calculus of ammonio-magnesic phosphate, and 
note that it melts to an enamel, while ammoniacal odor is devel- 
oped. 

(32.) An incombustible calculus dissolves in acetic acid with 
effervescence, and solution gives a precipitate with ammonic 
oxalate. What is its composition ? 

(33.) Test a biliary calculus for cholesterin and biliary pig- 
ments. 

(34.) Test faeces for the presence of starch. 

(35.) Determine amount of fat contained in a specimen of 
faeces. 

(36.) Show the presence of bile in faeces by Gmelin's and 
Pettenkofer's test. 



PART V. 

SANITARY CHEMISTRY. 

This part comprises the chemical investigation of air, water 
and foods for their respective utility and purity. The physician 
as sanitarian is expected very frequently to decide such ques- 
tions, and while a thorough analysis of either of the subjects 



132 AITLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

mentioned is accompanied with considerable difficulty, and can 
hardly come within the limited scope of this little volume, an 
outline is herewith presented by which the medical practitioner 
can ascertain, at least approximately, the proper merit or demerit 
of the above-mentioned substances. 

ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 

While varying in composition, according to location, tem- 
perature, barometric pressure, etc., the normal atmosphere is a 
mechanical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in very constant 
proportions, containing 20.93 volumes of oxygen and 79.07 
volumes of nitrogen, equivalent to 23 parts oxygen and J J parts 
nitrogen by weight. 

It is naturally of the greatest importance to know the amount 
of oxygen contained in a certain volume of atmosphere, also 
to ascertain if the proper amount of nitrogen is contained 
therein, and to determine the amount of carbonic acid and aque- 
ous vapor present. 

The quantitative determination of carbon dioxide and vapor 
present is, perhaps, most readily and easily accomplished by 
Brunner's method. This consists in providing a suitable aspi- 
rator, which can withdraw, by emptying itself of water, a certain 
and well-known volume of the air to be analyzed, which on its 
way to the aspirator has to pass through a series of U tubes, 
containing a weighed quantity of substances suitable to absorb 
the aqueous vapors and carbon dioxide of the atmosphere. 
The difference in weight before and after the aspiration give 
respectively the amount of vapor and the carbon dioxide. It 
is evident, in order that the absorbents will accomplish their 
task thoroughly, that the air should be allowed to pass slowly 
over them, and the determination of carbon dioxide and vapor 
should be made simultaneously. The aspirator for that purpose 
may be either a suitable suction apparatus, or it may be impro- 
vised from a large bottle or tin can, which can be tightly closed 
by a cork on top, and has a spigot at or near the bottom to 
allow the water to escape. Attached through the cork at the 
top is a glass tube, connected at the other end with the absorp- 
tion tubes by rubber tubing. The U tubes are filled with 
recently heated pumicestone in fragments, of which the two 



ATMOSPHERIC AIR. I 33 

nearest to the aspirator, and the two furthest, are saturated 
with concentrated sulphuric acid, while the pumice of the 
middle two, are saturated with concentrated solution of potassic 
hydrate. The two containing the H 2 S0 4 furthest from the 
aspirator, which will absorb the vapor of the atmosphere, are 
weighed together; the middle two, containing KHO, and 
absorbing the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere, along with 
the inner one of the two containing H 2 SO^, intended to absorb 
any water from the KHO tubes, are also weighed together. 
The aspirator filled with water is then connected with the 
absorption tubes, and the air slowly allowed to pass through 
them by opening the lower stopcock of the aspirator, the stream 
to be regulated to flow slowly and evenly. The water thus 
escaping, if the aspirator is not graduated to indicate the volume 
of water flown out, should be measured, and will represent the 
amount of air passed through the tubes. After the water of 
the aspirator has all flown out it is necessary to refill it, having 
first closed the stopcock of the connection with the absorption 
tubes, and thus the experiment is repeated until sufficient air 
has passed through to insure sufficient accuracy (at least 25-30 
litres). 

After completion of the operation the temperature and ba- 
rometric pressure is noted, and the U tubes weighed in the 
same order and manner as before. The difference in weight 
of the furthest two tubes gives the weight of aqueous vapor, 
and the difference of the next three toward the aspirator the 
amount of carbon dioxide. 

The corrections to be applied are — first, deduct the amount 
for tension of the aqueous vapor (see table); and second, for 
the reduction of the air so corrected to o°, and normal ba- 
rometric pressure (which see under Stoichiometry). 

The amounts so corrected are for weights, and can be com- 
puted for volume to correspond to the atmospheric air, which 
was observed by measure, or the latter can be expressed in 
weight, as 1000 c.c. at o°, and normal barometric pressure 
weigh 1.2932 grams. 

Determination of amount of oxygen in the atmospliere ', after 
Liebig. 

This depends upon the absorption of the oxygen by some 



134 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

substance, leaving the remaining nitrogen to be measured, 
thus ascertaining the quantity of both. This can best be 
accomplished with an alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid, 
which rapidly absorbs all the oxygen of a small measured 
quantity of atmospheric air. Gallic acid can be employed to 
the same end, but is slower in its action. 

To determine the amount of oxygen and nitrogen in atmos- 
pheric air a graduated tube, closed on one end and of about 
30 c.c. capacity, each of which is subdivided into 5 or 10 parts, 
is filled about one-third with mercury, the other two-thirds 
containing the air to be examined. The tube closed with the 
thumb or cork is then reversed in a mercury vat, unstoppered, 
and the volume contained in the tube is read off. If the 
amount of carbon dioxide present is to be determined at the 
same time, which can only be done, however, if it is present in 
considerable quantity (3-5 per cent.), the air has to be dried 
by means of a piece of calcic chloride introduced on a plati- 
num wire, and the volume read off after this. If the carbonic 
dioxide is not to be determined this can be omitted. 

Into the tube is then inserted with a pipette, bent at the point 
a little solution of potassic hydrate, specific gravity 1.4 (about 
the 4^ or ^q- of the volume), which is brought in contact 
with the air in the tube by inclining it in different directions, 
so that the KHO is distributed well over the tube, when 
the diminution of volume is read off as the amount of carbon 
dioxide present. After this is accomplished a small quantity 
of a solution of pyrogallic acid, about one-half of the volume 
of solution of KHO previously added, is introduced by means 
of a bent pipette in the same manner as before, and after 
agitating this well, to spread it out on the sides of the tube, 
when no further dimunition of volume takes place, the 
volume of nitrogen remaining is read off, and the difference 
between the last reading and this constitutes the amount of 
oxygen present. Although other contaminants of atmospheric 
air are generally present they are contained only in minute 
quantities and of little practical importance, while the amount 
of carbon dioxide is the most important contamination in sani- 
tary respects, and should never exceed more than 1 volume in 
1000. 



WATER. 135 

WATER, H 2 0. 

Freezing point 0°, forming transparent crystals. Boiling 
point ioo°C. density at I5°C, is the unit by which that of 
other bodies is measured. Its specific gravity decreases in- 
versely with the higher temperature, and increases until it 
reaches -(- 4°C, when it decreases again to the freezing point, 
where its specific gravity is 0.916. Its vapor is about 1700 
times its bulk, forming a colorless gas, specific gravity 0.455 a t 
iOO°C. When pure it should contain not more than one part 
fixed impurities in 10,000. 

The color or transparency should not be affected by hydro- 
gen sulphide or ammonic sulphydrate (absence of metallic im- 
purities). 100 c.c. with 10 c.c. diluted H 2 S0 4 , is mixed at 
the boiling point with sufficient solution of potassic permanga- 
nate (i-iooo) to impart to it a rose tint; this should not be 
destroyed by boiling for five minutes (absence of more than 
traces of organic matter). 

The foreign admixtures to water in solutions are either gas- 
eous, liquid, or solid. Water may also contain suspended ad- 
mixtures, such as dusts, earths, organic substances and other 
adventitious matter. 

The gaseous admixtures are generally, besides N and O, car- 
bon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, etc. 

N and O, also carbon dioxide, are not alone harmless, but if 
in proper quantities, healthful and necessary admixtures to 
water. Ammonia, which is often found in rain water, is ab- 
sorbed from the atmosphere. 

Hydrogen sulphide is present therein, often in consequence 
of the decomposition of organic material. It may be detected 
if a bottle be filled half full of water and well shaken for sev- 
eral minutes ; if an unpleasant odor is developed it is unfit to 
consume; also, if allowed to stand over night and a fetid odor 
develops, it should be rejected for drinking purposes. The 
solid admixtures to water existing therein in solution are, when 
found in a proper degree, essential to render water palatable 
and healthful. They consist, variably, of the potassic, sodic, 
ammonic, calcic, magnesic, and ferric salts, in combination with 
sulphuric, phosphoric, silicic, carbonic, and nitric acids and 



I36 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

chlorine. The detection and determination of these individu- 
ally is of no practical importance to the physician, barring the 
presence of the calcic and magnesic salts, which, if in excess, 
will give it the character of hardness. 

The total amounts of solids in water should not exceed 
O.4-O.5 per IOOO. This can readily be determined by evapora- 
tion, to be conducted over the open fire, and when arrived at 
sufficient density, to be concluded in a porcelain incinerating 
dish, the weight of which has been previously ascertained. 

Hardness of Water. — This, as already stated, is due to the 
presence of calcic and magnesic salts, in excess, in solution 
therein. Principal amongst these is the calcic carbonate, which, 
though not very soluble itself, is held in solution by carbon 
dioxide. By boiling such water the latter is driven off and the 
calcic carbonate is precipitated (temporary hardness). Calcic 
sulphate and, at times, chloride and nitrate, constitute also 
admixtures which render water hard and unfit for cooking 
and washing, as part of the soap is, in this case, decomposed 
into insoluble earthy soaps, which give no lather. Hard 
waters are said to impair digestion and give rise to urinary 
concretions. To determine the degree of hardness 70 c.c. of 
water are placed in a bottle of 250 c.c. capacity, into which an 
alcoholic solution of soap is gradually added from a burette^ 
while the bottle is well shaken after each addition ; when the 
lather remains for five minutes after the last addition the test is 
complete. For more than 16 c.c. of soap solution another 70 
c.c. of water should be added. The degree of hardness is ex- 
pressed by the number of c.c. 's of soap solution used, less I to 
be subtracted ; this represents approximately the number of 
grains of calcic carbonate in a gallon of water. 

The soap solution is 10 grams air-dried castile soap, dis- 
solved in a litre of alcohol 0.949. 1 1 c.c. of this solution 
should be required to overcome 10 c.c. of a solution of fused 
calcic chloride (1.11 grams to a litre of distilled water) when 
diluted with 60 c.c. more of distilled water. To determine the 
degree of temporary hardness, first boil another specimen of 
the same water, and, after filtering, test with the soap solution, 
when the difference in the two results, will give the degree of 
temporary hardness. 



WATER. I37 

Drinking water should not have more than 15 hardness at 
the most. 

Chlorides — Predominance of chlorides would give rise to 
suspicion of contamination by urinary excreta. Any water 
containing more than 1 grain chlorine to the gallon should be 
thus suspected. The presence of chlorine is determined with 
silver nitrate, 4.79 grams I litre; 100 c.c. water in a beaker are 
mixed with a little potassic chromate, sufficient to give it a 
yellow tint. The silver solution is then added from a burette 
until the white precipitate assumes a reddish color. Each c.c. 
of the silver solution so used represents 0.001 grams chlorine 
in 100 c.c. water, equal to 2 /$ grain per gallon. 

Nitrites, resulting from decomposition of nitrogenized mat- 
ter, are detected by adding a little H 2 S0 4 to the water to be ex- 
amined, and then a weak solution of KI, and lastly a little 
starch mucilage. The blue color of the iodide of starch will 
indicate nitrites, if present. 

Ammonia. — This is frequently found in water both from 
absorption as well as in consequence of decomposition. Its 
detection is very readily effected if no calcic or magnesic salts 
are present. These must therefore be separated by setting 
aside for 12-24 hours about 500 c.c. of the suspected water and 
adding 2 c.c. of solution sodic hydrate, after shaking it well to- 
gether. The magnesic or calcic hydrate will have completely 
separated, and the water can be decanted from them. If to 
100 c.c. of the clear water 2 c.c. Nessler's test are added and 
the mixture viewed before a white background, a yellowish or 
yellowish-red precipitate would indicate the presence of am- 
monia, while no coloration would insure its absence. 

Nessler's test is made by dissolving 30-40 grams of KI in a 
little hot water, to which a strong hot solution of mercuric 
chloride is added until the precipitate ceases to be dissolved. 
Then 180 grams of KHO are added, and water sufficient to 
make one litre. The liquid is then left to settle and is then 
decanted. 

This test can also be applied for the quantitative determina- 
tion of ammonia in water by means of comparative observa- 
tions of the color tints. The water to be tested to that end, is 
treated with Nessler's test as above stated, in a cylinder glass, 

10 



I38 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

and viewed before a white background. To another cylinder 
glass of the same size and calibre, and containing an equal vol- 
ume of pure water, a known quantity of the standard solution of 
amnionic chloride is added, and this treated with the same test 
in the same quantity, and viewed in the same manner after 
stirring. If the shades of the two liquids correspond, the 
amounts of ammonia therein contained will be equal. If the 
second liquid is paler it must be made stronger; if it is darker 
a further addition of a known volume of pure water will be 
necessary to equalize the tints. 

Organic Matter. — The presence of organic matter forms the 
greatest source of danger for potable water, and its presence 
should therefore be established where its existence is suspected. 
While, when in abundant quantities, even the yellow or brown- 
ish color would point to it, its presence can be established by 
evaporating a sample of water and gradually heating the residue 
to red heat, when a brown or blackish color will appear at the 
beginning of incineration and disappear as this progresses. 

Approximately the quantity of organic matter in water can 
be determined by evaporating a certain volume over a water 
bath until repeated weighings show no diminution in weight. 
If this is weighed and the amount of residue after incineration 
is also determined, the difference between the two gives ap- 
proximately the amount of organic matter present. 

The quantitative determination of organic matter, present in 
water, is not very readily accomplished, and can be conducted 
by two methods. The one depends on the determination of 
free ammonia first, and then by means of boiling with an alka- 
line potassic permanganate solution, converting the albuminoid 
ammonia into free ammonia, and determining this by the 
Nessler's test as above described from the distillates. 

Another is to determine the amount of potassic permanganate, 
reduced by acid solutions of organic matter, and comparing 
this with the amount of oxalic acid capable of accomplishing 
the same result. 

For this latter test a standardized solution of potassic per- 
manganate is employed, which corresponds in equal volume to 
a solution of oxalic acid containing 0.63 grams of pure acid in 
1 litre of distilled water. 1 c.c. of the permanganate solution, 



WATER. 1 39 

which is decolorized by I c.c. of the oxalic acid solution, con- 
tains 0.000316 grams potassic permanganate, gives off 0.00008 
grams oxygen in the oxidation, and corresponds to 0.00063 
grams oxalic acid. 

It is executed by adding 5 c.c. diluted H 2 S0 4 (1-3) to 100 
c.c. of the water to be tested, and to the mixture sufficient of 
the permanganate solution to color it deep-red, boiling the 
mixture for about 10 minutes, and then adding sufficient oxalic 
acid solution from a burette to decolorize it. Again, add from 
the burette containing the permanganate solution sufficient in 
small amounts to bring about a light-pink permanent colora- 
tion. The difference in the volume of the two solutions used 
is the amount of the organic matter expressed in oxalic acid. 
Thus, if 10 c.c. oxalic acid had been used, and altogether 30 
c.c. permanganate solution, the difference would be equal to 
20 c.c. oxalic acid solution, so that the amount of organic mat- 
ter expressed in oxalic acid would have been in 100 c.c. oi 
water 0.0126 grams. 

As ferrous salts, nitrous acid, and hydrogen sulphide also 
reduce the permanganate solution, their absence has to be 
established before applying this test. 

Metallic Contaminations. — Iron should not be contained 
in potable water more than 0.003 grams per litre, but is the 
least objectionable contamination, as it has a tendency to 
destroy organic matter. Ferrous salt may be detected in 
water by acidulation with a little HC1 and addition of potassic 
ferri cyanide, which will give a blue precipitate; while ferric 
salts are demonstrated in the same way by the use of potassic 
ferro-cyanide, though in both cases the precipitate may take 
place after some hours only. 

Copper is often a contamination, especially if the water con- 
tains carbon dioxide or calcic chloride. This is principally the 
case with soda water (carbonic acid water), drawn from copper 
fountains or through copper pipes and spigots. Its presence 
is determined by the addition of amnionic hydrate, blue color- 
ation ; potassic ferro-cyanide, brown precipitate. Bright iron 
is coated with metallic copper if immersed in it. 

Lead forms at once the most dangerous and common poi- 
sonous metallic contamination of water. This is due to the 



I40 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

vessels and pipes through which drinking water is conveyed. 
Many obscure cases of chronic colitis and plumbic disease 
were recognized and cured only after the lead contamination in 
the water was established by the proper tests. Lead is more 
apt to contaminate water from contact with bright or new 
pipes, which are alternately exposed to air and water, as only 
the oxygen of the water and atmosphere renders the lead 
soluble. Waters containing carbonates or carbonic acid are 
exempt from contamination by lead, but it is more apt to occur 
with rain water than any other. 

To detect lead in water pass a stream of hydrogen sulphide 
through it after first slightly acidulating it. If the amount is 
sufficient it can be shown by the addition of a little potassic 
iodide, but it may be required to condense its volume by 
evaporation to about one-tenth in order to demonstate this re- 
action. 

For the detection of any metallic contamination, the addition 
of ammonic sulphydrate will answer best, and after confirming 
the nature of the contaminant it can be quantitatively deter- 
mined by a comparative shade test with known solutions of the 
different metals. Serviceable solutions for this purpose are 
ferrous sulphate, 4.96 in 1000, each c.c. representing one milli- 
gram iron; cupric sulphate, 3.93 in 1000, each c.c. represent- 
ing one milligram copper; lead acetate, 1.66 in 1000, each c.c. 
equal to one milligram of lead. These standard solutions 
should be added from a burette to a known volume of water 
mixed with ammonic sulphydrate until the corresponding 
shade of the first shade is produced, when the amount of the 
test solution is read off and computed for the amount of water 
employed. 

Suspended admixtures to water from natural causes, con- 
sisting of mud, silicates, etc., are amongst the least objection- 
able, especially on account of their ready removal. If organic 
texture or organized bodies, however, such as algae, animal- 
culae, etc., form the sediment or suspended matter, they are of 
graver consequence on account of their proneness to decompo- 
sition on standing. To determine the nature of the suspended 
matter, leave a quantity of it settle in a conical glass, and ex- 
amine the residue, after decantation, with the microscope. To 



MILK. 141 

determine the quantity thereof, it is only necessary to pass a 
certain volume of the water through a dry and weighed filter, 
which is again dried with its contents and weighed, the differ- 
ence in the two weights forming the amount of suspended 
matter in that quantity of water. 

Purification of water may be accomplished either by distilla- 
tion, filtration, subsidence, precipitation or boiling. Distilla- 
tion is generally employed to render sea-water potable, and is 
carried on principally, on steam and other vessels, also on 
some coasts destitute of fresh water. To make distilled water 
potable and healthful, it should be freely aerated by stirring, 
and the tanks containing it should be whitewashed, or small 
additions of salt and pieces of marble should be made to it. 

Subsidence is only employed to rid water of suspended ad- 
mixtures, as is done in the reservoirs of larger cities. Filtra- 
tion through either sand, gravel or charcoal, or the three 
together has been much employed, but can, at best, deprive 
water of suspended matter in a more rapid manner than by sub- 
sidence. 

The much exalted coal filtration, which is thought to give 
security from organic substances on the ground of the absorb- 
ent power of coal, should be looked upon with suspicion, as the 
absorbing power of coal is inherent only in a useful degree to 
recently heated coal, and is soon exhausted in ordinary carbon 
filters ; while it might answer in small quantities for that 
purpose, it can serve, at best, only as a mechanical agent to 
separate suspended particles. 

The process of precipitation by either lime or alum is of 
value only to correct temporary hard waters, but even as such 
it is not to be relied on too much. Purification of water by 
boiling is probably the most effectual and reliable process to 
be employed, especially during epidemics, to destroy organic 
contaminations, germs, etc., as well as to correct temporary 
hardness. 

MILK. 

A natural emulsion of fat in an albuminous medium. 
The average composition of milk from different sources has 
been arranged in tabular form, as follows : 



142 



APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 



Proximate ingredients. 


Human. 


Cow. 


Goat. 


Cream. 


Condensed 
milk. 


Water 


88.35 
II.65 

3.15 

3-87 
4-37 
0.26 


84.28 
15-72 

3.57 
0.78 
6.47 

434 
0.63 


86.85 
I3-52 

2-53 \ 
1.26/ 

4-34 
3-78 
0.65 


45-99 
54-OI 

6 71 

43-97 
3.28 
0.42 


25.68 
74-32 

{ 16.83 
IO 27 

*44-33 
2.80 


Solids , 


Casein ) 

Albumen J 

Fat 


Lactose 


Salts 





Average specific gravity 1.030. 

Casern is an albuminoid of the milk of mammals, closely re- 
sembling alkali albumin, but is coagulated by rennet at 40 
and contains sulphur. It is coagulable by heat, but precipi- 
tated by many acids, in the excess of wjiich it is soluble. (See 
under Casein elsewhere.) 

The fat of milk is butter. It consists of the glycerides of 
stearic, palmitic, butyric, oleic, capric, caprylic and caproic 
acids, some coloring matter, and suspended in it casein, water, 
and salts. It should contain about 90 per cent, of fat, 6 per 
cent, of water, 2 to 5 percent, of curd, 2 to 5 per cent, salts and 
should melt at about 32.8-34.9 C. The fusing point is prob- 
ably the best test to distinguish pure butter from oleomar- 
garine, butterine, etc., or additions of them to true butter. 

Sugar of milk, lactose, only found in the milk of mammals, 
from which it is obtained. (For properties see under Lactose 
elsewhere). 

The salts contained in milk are, as found in the ashes, NaCl, 
10.73, KC1, 26.33, potassa 21.44, lime 18.78, magnesia 0.87, 
phosphoric acid 19.00, ferric phosphate 0.21, H 2 S0 4 2.64, and 
a trace of silica. 

Milk also contains gases, 100 volumes of which consist, ac- 
cording to Pfluger, of 

Carbon dioxide, ......... 90.48 

Nitrogen, . . . . . . . . . .1.19 

Oxygen, 8.33 

and are found in ioo volumes of milk as 

Carbon dioxide, . ........ 7-6° 

Nitrogen, 0.70 

Oxygen, . . . . . . . . . .0.10. 

* Including cane sugar. 



EXAMINATION OF MILK. 1 43 

Probable contaminations of milk are water, found by specific 
gravity ; calcic carbonate, detected by increase of the ashes ; 
starch, unboiled, by microscope ; boiled starch or other amyla- 
cea by iodine ; organic admixtures, such as grains, etc., by the 
microscope. The blue color of milk is generally due to a blue 
fungus formed therein. 

EXAMINATION OF MILK. 

1st. Specific gravity by either specific gravity bottle, but 
more readily by a suitable lactometer, having a range from 
1000-1040 (percentage lactometers are not reliable and should 
not be used). A marked deviation below the normal 1030 
will indicate addition of water. The principal and most valu- 
able components of milk being casein and fat, their determina- 
tion is of prime importance. 

To proceed with the analysis, after taking the specific gravity 
and reaction, the specimen to be examined is divided into two 
parts. 20 grams of the one are evaporated in a porcelain dish 
over the water bath, the capsule having first been weighed. 
When after repeated weighings there is no further diminution 
of weight, deduct the last weight, less the tare of capsule from 
the 20 grams, which will give the water contained therein. 
The residue in the capsule is then mixed with a weighed 
quantity of pure, washed and dried fine sand, sufficient to ab- 
sorb the soft substance remaining, so that with the aid of 
alcohol it can be entirely removed from the capsule and placed 
on a funnel for displacement with benzin. This will dis- 
solve all the fat, which on evaporation of benzin can be 
weighed and so determined. The balance plus the sand will 
give the casein, lactose and salts. Empty these into a capsule 
without cover and incinerate at red heat, the weight of the 
capsule having first been ascertained. The residue, minus the 
weight of sand, will give the amount of the salts, the difference 
from the first weight giving the combined weight of lactose 
and casein. The other sample of milk is to be coagulated with 
a little acetic acid or HC1, by raising it to the boiling point to 
insure complete coagulation and filtering while hot. The clear 
whey so separated is then mixed with three times its volume 
of water, and tested with Fehling's solution, as directed for the 



144 



APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY 



qualitative examination of diabetic urine, with the difference 
that each 10 c.c. of the test (instead of representing 0.05 
grams as with glucose) represents 0.067 g rams of lactose. 
The amount of lactose so ascertained is computed for the 
quantity of milk used, and this weight is deducted from the 
mixed amounts of casein and lactose, leaving as difference the 
weight of the casein contained therein. Various instruments 
have been devised to test the quality of milk by optic com- 
parison with standard shades, but none of these will give even 
approximate results ; such instruments are the pioscope, lacto- 
scope, etc., etc. 

For the ready determination of the amount of cream con- 
tained in milk, which, after all, gauges its value, creamometers 
have been devised, but a simple tube or cylinder of about half 
inch in diameter and divided into 100 parts, or a 100 c.c. measure, 
answers all the purposes. The milk, after being well shaken, 
is poured into this to the 100 c.c. mark, and left to stand for 
24 hours. The amount of cream rising to the top at the expi- 
ration of this time should be about 10 per cent., else the milk 
has already been skimmed. 

To determine the value of milk, the results of the analysis 
should be compared with the normal standard given above. 
If varying largely, adulteration may be confidently claimed. 



FLOUR. 

This is the finely ground and sifted grain of wheat which 
differs somewhat in its composition, according to its source. 
According to analysis its average composition is as follows : 



Water, . 

Carbohydrate, 

Nitrogenous matter, 

Fats, 

Mineral matter, 



Letheby. 
15.0 

70-5 

10.S 

2.0 

1-7 



Payen. 

14.22 

68.48 

14-45 

125 
1.60 



The examination of flour should always be made with the 
microscope, the chemical examination serving as confirmation 
thereof. The contamination of flour may be either of mineral 
or organic origin, and the examination must be conducted ac- 
cordingly. The first thing to be ascertained is the amount of 



BREAD. 145 

water contained in it, which can be accomplished by heating it 
over the water-bath until, on repeated weighings, no diminution 
of weight takes place. The loss experienced in the weight 
before and after heating is the water in it, which should not 
exceed 15 per cent. 

The total amount of ashes should next be noted as derived 
by incineration in an open porcelain dish ; this should not ex- 
ceed more than 2 oer cent of the flour. Mineral contaminants 
introduced into flour can be thus discovered, and their chemical 
character subsequently ascertained. They may also be shown 
by shaking well 5 grams flour with 30 grams chloroform in a 
narrow cylindrical glass, and adding finally about 30 drops of 
water, and allowing it to subside. The flour will gradually rise 
to the top, while the mineral impurities will be deposited, and 
can be separated by decantation for qualitative examination. 

The organic contaminations of flour are either the flour of 
other grains or cereals, or gravest of all, ergot. If, according 
to Vogel, 2 grams flour are well shaken with 10 c.c. 70 per 
cent, alcohol containing 5 per cent. HO, and the mixture is 
allowed to subside, pure wheat flour will not color the alcohol, 
whereas, barley, oats, peas, or corn will give a light-yellow 
color ; some other grains produce orange to red, and ergot will 
color the alcohol blood-red. Bcettger recommends that flour 
should be mixed with acetic ether, and, with addition of a 
little oxalic acid, heated to the boiling point, when, if ergot is 
present, the supernatant liquid will be colored more or less red. 

BREAD. 

As all breads are a mixture of water and flour, treated by 
fermentation and other processes in a manner to insure their 
aeration and sponginess, and then baked, the nutritive value of 
bread must depend on the amount of the amylaceous solids 
contained therein, and the improper excess of water over these 
would certainly impair its value. An average composition of 
bread has been given by Letheby as follows : 

Water, 37.0 

Carbohydrates, . . . . . . . , .51.0 

Nitrogenous matter, . . . . . . . .8.1 

Fats, 1.6 

Mineral matter, . . 2.3 



I46 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

The increase of mineral components being due to the salt 
used in its manufacture, the amount of water in bread should 
not exceed 36 to 38 per cent., though when quite fresh it may 
contain as high as 50 per cent. To ascertain the amount of 
water in bread it is finely divided, and treated in a drying-oven 
at 100— 105 °, until, on repeated weighings, no loss is noticed, 
when the difference in weight will give the amount of water. 
The amount of mineral matter is determined by incineration in 
the open porcelain dish. The ashes of pure wheat bread should 
not exceed 2.5 per cent, of its weight, and of rye bread 3 per 
cent. 

Alum, zinc, or earths can be detected in and demonstrated 
from the ashes, but to detect alum, which is frequently used as 
a corrective of bad flour, and as such constitutes both by itself, 
and as a disguise for the former, a most reprehensible con- 
taminant, different direct processes may be employed. Thus 
Homely recommends a tincture of I gram logwood, 20 
grams methylic alcohol, of which 10 c.c. are mixed with 
150 c.c. water and 10 c.c. saturated solution of amnionic car- 
bonate. Into this mixture the bread to be examined is im- 
mersed for about six minutes, when, after drying in the air for 
two or three hours, it will turn blue if no alum is present, but 
will turn brown if alum is contained in the bread. The same 
result may be attained by destroying the organic matter by 
means of nitric acid, or hydrochloric acid and potassic chlorate, 
over the water-bath until it is limpid and yellowish, when the 
filtrate is evaporated and made slightly alkaline with potassic 
hydrate, and this is acidulated with HC1; if, on addition of 
ammonia in excess, a flocculent precipitate occurs, the presence 
of an aluminium compound is indicated. 

PRESERVED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 

The fact that these are often boiled in copper or enamelled 
vessels, the enamel of the latter containing lead, also their 
preservation in tins with lead solder, makes their contamination 
with either copper or lead, or both, not infrequent. Pickles and 
vegetables, to give them a green color, are sometimes purposely 
colored with cupric sulphate or acetate. These contaminations 
are best detected from their ashes after incineration, for which 



CONFECTIONS AND CANDIES WINES. I 47 

purpose the ashes are treated with dilute HN0 3 , and the solu- 
tion with ammonic sulphydrate. On the recognition of the 
presence of a metallic contaminant they can be tested for lead 
or copper according to the manner shown under their respec- 
tive headings in the " Chemistry of Poisons." 

CONFECTIONS AND CANDIES. 

The presence of poisonous and deleterious substances in 
these has been, of late, of such frequent occurrence, that the de- 
tection of their noxious ingredients is often of great value for 
the physician. The employment of glucose would be one of 
the least objectionable sophistications, if this were at all times 
free from arsenic, introduced by the employment of impure 
acids in its manufacture. The colorings employed are also at 
times highly poisonous, consisting, as they do, of chrome- 
yellow, verdigris, lead carbonate, fuchsin, etc. Arsenic is 
readily detected by adding the suspected substances to the tube 
of the Fleitmann's test, when the reduction of the argentic 
nitrate will soon indicate its presence. Fuchsin is demonstrated 
by shaking the colored solution (if acid, first neutralized with 
magnesic hydrate in excess) with a little of a mixture of equal 
quantities of amylic alcohol and ether, which on separating will 
be colored red or pink if fuchsin is present. The mineral pig- 
ments can be detected by incinerating the suspected substances, 
treating the ashes with dilute HN0 3 , and applying the tests for 
lead or copper as above. 

WINES. 

Under this head must be considered the various fermented 
juices of fruits, principally grapes, which are intended for 
consume both as beverages and as medicinal agents. Their 
constituents, in varying proportions, are water, alcohol, sugar, 
astringents, coloring matter, extractive, acids, and ethers, as also 
carbonic dioxide in the sparkling wines. According to the 
purpose intended for, their value as medicinal agents depends 
on the amount of alcohol, the astringents, or the carbonic 
dioxide they contain, while their commercial value as beverages 
seems largely to depend upon the ethers developed in the 
course of time. 



I48 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

Still wines are designated by their color as either white or 
red, and all wines generally bear names characteristic of the 
localities where they are raised. 

The average strength of alcohol in wine should be about 
10-12 per cent., and may be determined by weighing a definite 
volume at 15. 6°, evaporating this over the water-bath at ioo° 
in a porcelain capsule to one-third of its volume, and after this 
is done, adding enough distilled water to bring it up to the 
original volume at 1 5. 6°, and weighing again. Divide the first 
of these weights by the second, and the quotient will represent 
the density of the mixture of alcohol and water in the wine, 
for which the corresponding percentage of alcohol can be com- 
puted, or taken from a table for this purpose. Instead of weigh- 
ing, the corresponding specific gravity of the wine both direct 
and after evaporating and making up of volume with water, can 
be taken, and the difference between the two deducted from 
1000 will give the density of the alcohol present in the wine. 

The sugar present in wine can be determined by the use of 
the Fehling's solution, and the astringents by means of 5 drops 
solution of ferric chloride, which should impart only a faintly 
greenish-brown color to 10 c.c. white wine, while the same 
quantity to a like quantity of red wine should give it a decided 
brownish-green color, in proportion to the amount of tannic 
acid present. The acids of the wines can be determined with 
the volumetric solution of sodic hydrate. 250 c.c. wine should 
not require less than 15 c.c. and more than 25 c.c. for neutrali- 
zation, litmus paper being used as indicator. The residue left 
after evaporation over the water-bath for twelve hours should 
be within 1.6-3.5 per cent. 

Besides the tests for the quality of wines, it may at times be- 
come necessary to discover adulterations of an injurious nature, 
of which fuchsin in red wines and lead in white wines are the 
ones most apt to occur. The presence of fuchsin can be de- 
tected by shaking 20 c.c. of the wine with an excess of mag- 
nesic hydrate, and adding a mixture of I c.c. each of ether and 
amylic alcohol. Shake well together, and if fuchsin is present 
the supernatant layer of ether and fusel oil will be colored red- 
dish or pink on separating. 

Lead in white wines can be detected by precipitation with 



MALT LIQUORS. 1 49 

hydrogen sulphide ; separation of precipitate by filtration, and 
reduction of the precipitate with the blow-pipe. 

MALT LIQUORS. 

These are fermented infusions of malt admixed with hops, 
and, according to the methods employed for obtaining them, 
are respectively termed ale, porter, and what is termed in this 
country lager beer. The beers consist principally of water, 
alcohol, sugar, dextrine, nitrogenous matter, aromatic bitter 
principles, salines, along with lactic, acetic, and carbonic acids. 
Their alcoholic strength varies according to the amount of malt 
employed in their manufacture. Thus, the ales contain 6-9 
per cent., porter 5-7 per cent., lager beer 4-5 per cent., while 
some of the so-called small or weiss beers contain only between 
1 and 2 per cent. 

As with wine, the amount of alcohol mav be ascertained in 
several ways. A known volume distilled until the distillate 
amounts to about one-half of the quantity first used, and the 
distillate brought with distilled water at 156° to the original 
volume, can be examined for its specific gravity, and the alcohol 
therein computed from it. Again, a known volume of beer 
may be evaporated to one-third after its specific gravity has 
been taken, and the residue brought up with distilled water to 
the original volume, and the specific gravity also ascertained. 
Divide the latter specific gravity by the former, which will give 
the specific gravity of the mixture of water and alcohol in the 
beer, providing that the carbonic acid has been removed by 
shaking with a little calcic hydrate, and separation of this by 
filtration. (Specific beer test.) The quantity of extractive can 
be ascertained by evaporating a known quantity of beer over 
the water-bath until, after repeated weighings, no further loss 
is observed. The sugar may be determined by the Fehling's 
test, and the acids by the volumetric solution of sodic hydrate, 
after the carbonic acid is driven off by heating. 

The adulterations of beers, besides their dilution with water, 
detected by the alcoholic test, consists in the addition of gly- 
cerin, detected by the acrid vapors developed on incinerating 
the residue extractive; also the addition of bitter chemicals, 
instead of the often high-priced hops, such as picric acid, 



150 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

strychnine, or picrotoxin, or rather drugs containing the latter 
two. 

Picric acid in beer is detected by evaporating a certain quan- 
tity {%-i litre) over the water-bath to dryness; treat the ex- 
tractive with alcohol, filter, and evaporate; dissolve residue 
thereof in boiling water, evaporate again, and extract residue 
with ether, which will dissolve the picric acid, and leave it on 
evaporation in scales or needles, to be recognized by dyeing 
from its watery solution a yarn of wool or silk intensely yellow, 
or giving a blood-red color with potassic cyanide, due to the 
formation of isopurpuric acid. 

Strychnine, and Picrotoxinc. — The detection of these two poi- 
sonous admixtures to beer depends on the complete precipita- 
tion of all the bitter substance of hops by basic lead acetate and 
a little ammonia ; beer, if free from the above-mentioned poisons, 
does not taste bitter after being so precipitated and filtered. To 
test to that end 2 litres beer are evaporated to 1 litre, and, while 
still warm, this is precipitated by a solution of basic lead acetate, 
and a little ammonia as long as a precipitate takes place, and 
then rapidly filtered. The filtrate is treated with a little H 2 S0 4 
until all the dissolved lead salt is precipitated, which is then 
separated by filtration. This filtrate is then neutralized with am- 
monia, and evaporated to y± litre, when it is treated with I litre 
alcohol to separate dextrin, etc., and set aside for twenty-four 
hours. After this is filtered, the alcohol is evaporated, and the 
residue well shaken with chloroform, which after filtration and 
evaporation leaves a residue, to be tested for picrotoxin, as stated 
under its proper heading. 

To test for the presence of strychnine, the chloroform residue 
is rendered alkaline with ammonia, and then shaken with benzol, 
which, when separated by filtration and evaporation of the 
benzol, leaves a residue that is to be tested as described under 
the head of Strychnine. 

WHISKEY. 

The spirit distilled from fermented infusions of malted grain 
subjected to redistillation and purification. On account of its 
extensive use as a beverage, as well as a medicinal agent, the 
tests to recognize its purity and value are of some importance 



BRANDY. 151 

As its principal components are alcohol and water the deter- 
mination of the quantity of the former present, by the hydro- 
meter or specific gravity vial, is the first step in its examination ; 
its specific gravity should be between 930 and 917. As young 
and raw whiskey has a disagreeable odor, arising from amylic 
alcohol developed from the grain during fermentation, and this 
is changed in the course of a few years to an ether and some 
volatile acids, whiskeys should not be used until at least two 
years old, and until they show no fusel oil, or, at least, only 
traces thereof. This can be detected by evaporating 100 c.c. 
very slowly in a weighed capsule over a water-bath, when the 
last portions should have no harsh or disagreeable odor. Upon 
complete evaporation over the water-bath the residuum should 
not amount to more than y^ per cent., which would show the 
absence of solids, sugar, or glycerin, very frequent admixtures, 
and the residue should have no sweet, spicy, or pungent taste, 
indicating the presence of spices, capsicum, etc. 

The residue should dissolve completely in 10 c.c. of water, 
which is colored greenish on addition of a drop of solution 
of ferric chloride, showing traces of tannin from barrels. 
Whiskey acquires an acid reaction with age, to which is at- 
tributed its mellowness, and to the end of imitating this, acids 
are frequently introduced. The natural acids so formed are 
acetic and traces of valerianic acid, and they should not be 
present in larger quantities than to admit 100 c.c. being ren- 
dered alkaline to litmus by 2 c.c. of the volumetric solution of 
sodic hydrate. The flavor of old whiskey is often imitated by 
other ethers, which is most conveniently detected by Molnar's 
test. 

This consists in evaporating the alcohol of a small amount 
of whiskey with a little potassic hydrate added thereto in excess, 
whereby the compound ethers are decomposed, and on addition 
of H 2 S0 4 in excess, their volatile acids are liberated, and may 
be recognized by their odor. 

BRANDY. 

The distillate from fermented grapes of a specific gravity of 
O.941 to 0.925, and containing about 39-47 per cent, by weight, 
or 46-55 per cent, by volume of absolute alcohol. When 



152 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

sufficiently aged it has a peculiar, pleasant flavor, largely due 
to the presence of ethyl pelargonate, and also the ethers of 
other volatile acids. It is slightly acid in reaction; 100 c.c. 
should be rendered alkaline by the addition of 3 c c. volumetric 
solution of sodic hydrate. The tests for admixtures in the resi- 
due of evaporation are to be conducted in the same manner 
as for whiskey, while Molnar's test will indicate the origin of its 
flavors. Lead and copper, said to be present in brandy at times, 
may be detected as already stated. 

VINEGAR. 

A natural dilute acetic acid obtained directly by the acetous 
fermentation of alcoholic liquids, cider, wines, dilute spirits, 
etc. Its principal value depends on the amount of acetic acid 
it contains, which can be determined as described under Acid- 
imetry. Its specific gravity should be 1. 008 to 1. 01 8, and it 
should contain between 5 and 6 per cent, acetic acid. The 
principal adulterations of vinegar consist of the mineral acids, 
which can be detected by the addition of a solution of methyl 
violet, turning blue in the presence of mineral acids, but 
not affected by organic acids. Admixtures of sulphuric acid 
to vinegar maybe recognized by evaporating a moderate quan- 
tity in a porcelain capsule in the presence of a small piece of 
cane sugar, which will be carbonized if H 2 S0 4 was present, but 
is not affected by acetic acid. The admixture of capsicum, 
ginger, or other sharp organic substances may be recognized 
by completely neutralizing the vinegar with an alkali to litmus 
paper, when they can be readily detected by the taste. Con- 
taminations with lead, zinc, or copper may be detected with 
ammonic sulphydrate directly, or, if not sufficient to indicate 
so, after concentration, when by the tests for them already given 
elsewhere, they may be recognized individually. 

PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS AND 
THEIR ACTIVE PRINCIPLES. 

The testing of galenical preparations, i. e., such that have been 
prepared from crude drugs without altering their chemical 
character, depends to a large extent on the knowledge of their 
chemical composition or their active principles. Thus elixirs, 



PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS, ETC. I 53 

syrups, wines, tinctures, fluid extracts, or solid extracts, de- 
pending on a resin for their efficacy, should be tested by pre- 
cipitating them from their alcoholic solutions with water, or, 
better still, a concentrated solution of sodic chloride. A fluid 
extract of podophyllum, for example, may be tested as to the 
amount of resin contained therein by evaporation to dryness, 
redissolving the residue in stronger alcohol, and precipitating 
with a solution of NaCl, filtering through a tared filter, and 
after washing and drying the precipitate in the air before again 
weighing for the final result. The strength of solid extracts 
having resins for their active principles, and also resinoids, etc., 
can be relatively determined in this way. 

As the most of the tinctures, fluid extracts, extracts, wines, 
etc., depend for their efficacy on the amount of alkaloid or alka- 
loids they hold in solution, the general characters and tests for 
these should be known. 

Alkaloids are generally composed of carbon, hydrogen, ni- 
trogen, and most of them also contain oxygen, which, with a 
few exceptions, however, is absent in the liquid alkaloids. 
Chemically, they are held to be amines and are generally 
treated as such, as they have many reactions like ammonia 
compounds, are alkaline, and unite with acids to crystallizable 
salts, and when heated, give off alkaline vapors, which can be 
either the unchanged volatilized alkaloid or ammonia or ammo- 
nia substitutions. They possess characteristic actions, accord- 
ing to their molecular arrangements and are influenced by 
powerful oxidizing agents in such a manner that they can be 
recognized through the development of different colors under 
such circumstances, and exert a rotary action upon polarized 
light, being mostly laevo-gyrous in this respect. 

From their solutions they are precipitated by certain agents, 
and in a manner which often serves to indicate their identity, 
as well as the strength of their solutions. 

The principal precipitants or general tests for alkaloids are 
as follows : 

Tannic acid. — Bulky precipitate of white or yellowish tan- 
nates, often soluble in HC1. In some instances, as with 
morphine, they are soluble in the precipitant. Tannic acid 

11 



154 



APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 



precipitates other principles as well, especially neutral bodies 
and bitter principles. 

Potassio-mercuric iodide. — White or yellowish precipitate, 
alkaloid replacing the potassium ; precipitate insoluble in acids, 
but soluble in alcohol. 

This solution is made by dissolving 13.546 grams HgCl 2 
and 49.8 KI in 1 litre H 2 0. It can be used for quantitative 
determination of alkaloids, by dropping from a burette until no 
more precipitate occurs, which can be proven by testing a fil- 
tered portion with a little of the solution. Each c.c. of this 
reagent is equal to the following amounts of the respective 
alkaloids in the liquid to be tested, providing no other alkaloid 
is present. 



Aconitine, 

Atropine, 

Strychnine, 

Veratrine, 

Morphine, 

Coniine, 

Quinine, 

Cinchonine. 



Potassio-cadmic iodide, from solutions with H^SO^, white 
amorphous precipitates, turning yellow and crystalline ; soluble 
in alcohol. 

Potassio-bismutluc iodide, orange-red, amorphous precipitates 
form solutions slightly acidulated with H 2 S0 4 . 

Phospho-molybdic acid, an acid solution of a sodium salts 
thereof, gives yellow or yellowish-brown amorphous pre- 
cipitates, insoluble in alcohol and dilute mineral acids (very 
delicate). 

Picric acid, precipitates most alkaloids in a yellow, crystal- 
line or amorphous form, precipitate soluble in HC1. 

To separate glucosides or alkaloids from the liquids or solids 
containing them, either as menstrua or in toxicological analyses 
of the ejecta, dejecta or excreta, is often a matter of some diffi- 
culty, but usually accomplished after the method of Stas and 
Otto. This depends on the extraction of the active principle 
either from an acid or alkaline solution with ether, amylic 
alcohol, chloroform, or benzin, or all of them successively. 



0.0267 


grams 


0.0145 


« 


0.0167 


(< 


0.0233 


c< 


0.0200 


(( 


0.00416 


(( 


0.0108 


(( 


0.0102 


it 



PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS, ETC. I 5 5 

The substance to be examined is to that end, if liquid, evapo- 
rated to syrupy consistence, and if solid, coarsely diminuted and 
mixed with double its weight of alcohol (as free as possible from 
fusel oil). The mixture is then acidulated with tartaric acid and 
left to digest at a moderate warmth for some time. This ex- 
traction is repeated, and after filtering the total extracted liquid, 
evaporated at a moderate temperature to syrupy consistence, 
while fats separating therefrom are removed by filtration. After 
adding a little absolute alcohol again, the extract is filtered, the 
residue washed with a little water and the alcohol present 
evaporated, and the filtrate if very acid neutralized with a dilute 
sodic hydrate solution until only slightly acid. This is then 
shaken repeatedly with pure ether until the washings come off 
colorless, after which the ether is then separated and evaporated. 

Colchicine, veratrine (partly), atropine (partly), and also can- 
tharidin, picrotoxin and digitalin may thus be separated and 
recognized by their special tests. The residue after shaking 
with ether is now rendered alkaline and again shaken with 
ether, which will dissolve the following : nicotine, coniine, 
lobeline, thebaine, codeine, narcotine, papaverine, quinine, qui- 
nidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, strychnine, brucine, veratrine, 
jervine, atropine, hyoscyamine,physostigmine, delphinine, aconi- 
tine and emetine ; from the alkaline solution morphine and nar- 
ceine can be separated with amylic alcohol, while curarine, if 
present, will remain. 

Glucosides are active principles of drugs containing as a rule 
no nitrogen, forming no salts with dilute acids, but form glu- 
cose with them. Their proximate constitution is so far not 
known, but as they split up into glucose, and this is assumed 
to be an alcohol, they are most likely the ethers thereof. 
While many glucosides are precipitated with the above men- 
tioned tests, and extracted in the same manner, they must not 
be confounded with alkaloids. Their terminal syllables are 
" in " in English and " inum " in Latin, and those of alkaloids 
" ine " in English, and " ina " in Latin. 

The more important glucosides and their tests are : 

Amygdalitis C 20 H 27 NO n ; on being boiled with alkalies splits 
up into ammonia and amygdalic acid, which latter on boiling 
with dilute acids splits into glucose and mandelic acid. Amyg- 



I56 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

dalin with emulsin and water is decomposed into glucose, 
benzoic aldehyde (oil of bitter almonds) and hydrocyanic acid. 

Digitalin. — Decomposed by H 2 S0 4 into glucose and digitali- 
retin C 15 H 25 5 . Dissolved in H 2 S0 4 it yields a green color 
which, on addition of bromine water, changes to a reddish- 
violet, and on dilution with water, emerald green. 

Picrotoxin, C 9 H 10 O 4 , not precipitated from its solutions by 
alkaloidal precipitants. H 2 S0 4 cone, dissolves it with golden- 
yellow color, which turns violet on the addition of a trace of 
potassic bichromate, and with larger quantities brown. 

Salicin, C 13 H 18 7 is split up by dilute acids into glucose and 
saligenin ; dextro-gyrous = 55.8. With H 2 S0 4 cone, it turns 
red, which disappears on addition of water. 

Santonin, C 15 H 18 3 . — H 2 S0 4 , with heat splits it into glucose 
and santoniretin. With H 2 S0 4 it yields a colorless solution 
and is precipitated from it unchanged on dilution with water. 
With alcoholic solution of KHO it gives a scarlet-red liquid, 
gradually becoming colorless. 

Alkaloids, some of the more important and their tests : 

Aconitine, C 30 H 47 NO 7 . — Dissolved in H 2 S0 4 cone, solution first 
yellow, then brown, passing to red- brown and violet. With 
concentrated H 3 P0 4 , color violet. With dilute H 3 P0 4 only 
seen after careful evaporation. 

Apomorphinc, C 17 H 17 N0 2 . — The hydrochlorate is alone used. 
With HN0 3 , color blood-red, with ferric chloride, amethyst- 
red ; molybdic acid, bright-green. 

Atropine > C 17 H 23 N0 3 . — A fragment of potassic bichromate, or 
ammonium molybdate dissolved in H 2 S0 4 c. and warmed, gives, 
upon the addition of atropine and afterwards a few drops of 
H 2 0, rise to an odor variously compared to orange blossoms 
and oil of bitter almonds. 

Caffeine, C 8 H 10 N 4 O 2 + H 2 0. — With hot fuming nitric acid it 
gives a yellow liquid, turning purple on addition of ammonia. 
Caffeine is not precipitated by picric acid nor potassio-mercuric 
iodide. 

Cinchonidine ', C 19 H 22 N 2 0, laevogyrous = 144.61 °. No change 
in color with concentrated H 2 S 4 or HN0 3 (distinction from 
morphine, salicin, etc.). No coloration with H 2 S0 4 and po- 
tassic dichromate (distinction from strychnine) ; on addition of 



PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS, ETC. I 57 

chlorine water and ammonia, no coloration (distinction from 
quinine and quinidine). 

CincJwnine, C 19 H 22 N 2 0, dextrogyrous = 190.4 no change 
in color with H 2 S0 4 or HN0 3 , no color with H 2 S0 4 and po- 
tassic dichromate, no color with chlorine water and ammonia. 

Codeine. — C 18 H 21 N0 3 -f- H 2 laevogyrous = 1 18.2 . Not pre- 
cipitated by ammonia from its solutions. Its solution in cold 
H 2 S0 4 is at first colorless, but turning blue on being warmed; 
does not reduce iodic acid. With H 2 S0 4 containing a little 
ammonium molybdate, it gives a green solution, soon changing 
to blue, gradually changing to yellow. If dissolved in chlorine- 
water and addition of ammonia, it gives a yellowish-red color. 

Colchicine. — C ]7 H 19 N0 5 . — H 2 S0 4 colors it first yellow, then 
green; HN0 3 first violet then green. H 2 S0 4 -f- HN0 3 turns 
it violet, and on addition of alkali, orange-yellow. 

Coniine. — C 8 H 15 N liquid ; specific gravity, 0.878. Produces 
white fumes with vapors of HC1 and HN0 3 ; with H 2 S0 4 it 
produces a purplish-red color, changing to olive green, giving 
off odor of butyric acid. With iodic acid its solution in alcohol 
gives a white precipitate. 

Emetine. — C 28 H 40 N 2 O 5 — H 2 S0 4 forms greenish-brown solu- 
tion. H 2 S0 4 -+- HN0 3 green, changing to yellow. When a 
little chlorinated lime is added to it, a drop or two of acetic 
acid will give therewith an orange-yellow. 

Hyoscy amine. — C 17 H 23 N0 3 laevogyrous = 14.5 . With auric 
chloride precipitate, which when crystallized from H 2 with 
HC1, forms brilliant, lustrous, golden-yellow scales, without 
rendering the liquid turbid (distinction from atropine.) 

Morphine. — C 17 H 19 N0 3 .H 2 laevogyrous = 88.04 . Its acid 
solutions yields precipitates with alkalies and alkaline carbo- 
nates, soluble in excess of alkali, but less so with ammonia. 

Morphine is not precipitated by tannic acid, but by potassio- 
mercuric iodide. 

H 2 S0 4 dissolves it colorless, but upon addition of HN0 3 a 
red color is developed. With HN0 3 a red color is produced, 
changing to yellow ; this is changed to violet on addition of 
stannous chloride or ammonic sulphydrate. A mixture of mor- 
phine and four times its weight of cane-sugar, moistened with 
H 2 S0 4 , gives a dark red color, or if a small amount of the alka- 



158 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

loid only is present, wine or rose red. If a fresh solution of 
molybdic acid is added, or amnionic molybdate dissolved in 
H 2 S0 4 , a beautiful violet color is produced, changing to blue 
and dirty green before disappearing ; the addition of water de- 
stroys this color. Its most characteristic test consists in its 
power to reduce iodic acid, giving it a yellowish-brown color, 
which, when shaken with chloroform or carbon bisulphide, gives 
these a fine purple coloration. The neutral solution of its salts 
gives a blue color on addition of a little ferric chloride. If to 
a diluted solution of potassic ferricyanide a little ferric chloride 
solution be added, and, finally, a drop of morphine solution, a 
deep blue coloration will ensue. 

Narceine. — C 23 H 29 N0 9 -\- H 2 laevogyrous = 6.y° ; blue on 
addition of iodine-water ; with H^O^ grayish-brown, turning 
to blood-red on warming. Dissolved in chlorine-water and 
ammonia added, blood-red. 

Narcotine. — C 22 H 23 N0 7 laevogyrous = 103.5. Colorless with 
H 2 S0 4 , gradually turning yellow, and on addition of HN0 3 
blood-red. With dilute H 2 S0 4 gradually evaporated, it turns 
first orange-red, then from without bluish-violet, and finally red. 
H 2 S0 4 with a trace of sodium molybdate, green ; if more molyb- 
date be added, cherry-red. Chlorine-water turns its salts 
greenish-yellow, changing on addition of ammonia to a tran- 
sient cherry-red. 

Physostigmine. — Eserine C 15 H 21 N 3 2 . Yellow with H 2 S0 4 , 
gradually changing to red, or reddish-brown, on addition of 
bromine-water. With small amount of chlorinated lime red- 
dish, which, on addition of more, passes off 

Pilocarpine. — C u H 16 N 2 2 . The hydrochlorate with H 2 S0 4 
yellow; with HN0 3 , faintly greenish-violet; with H 2 S0 4 and 
potassic bichromate, emerald-green. 

Quinine. — C 20 H 24 N 2 O 2 -f 3 H 2 laevogyrous = 126.7 . Solu- 
tions of quinine and its salts, when mixed with chlorine-water, 
and afterwards with an excess of ammonia, give a bright emerald- 
green color (Thalleiochin). The green color passes to red by 
addition of potassic ferrocyanide, or better, if the latter is added 
before the ammonia. Owing to the frequent adulterations of 
quinine sulphate, the following tests for its purity should be 
employed. One gram if dried at ioo° C. for three hours, 



SYLLABUS TO PART V. 1 59 

or until it ceases to lose weight, should not weigh less than 
0.838 ; if less, it contains more than 8 molecules of water. 
If I gram of it be shaken in a test-tube with 15 c. c. of ether 
and 2 c. c. of aqua ammonia is added, the liquid should separate 
into two clear layers, without milky zone or crystals (Cincho- 
nine). When dissolved in hot water, precipitated with an alka- 
line oxalate and filtered, there should be no precipitate with am- 
monia and the filtrate (Quinidine). It should not turn yellow 
or red on addition of H 2 S0 4 (Salicin and Phlorizin). Its solu- 
bility in acidulated waters, boiling dilute alcohol, complete com- 
bustion would prove the absence of fats, resins, gum, starches, 
and mineral substances. 

Strychnine. — C 21 H. 22 N 2 2 laevogyrous = 132.07 . Dissolves 
in a little H 2 S0 4 without color, but upon addition of a small 
fragment of potassic dichromate, or if potassic permanganate is 
added, a beautiful deep violet or blue color is devoloped, chang- 
ing to red, and finally to yellow. A solution of iodic acid in 
H 2 S0 4 if added to strychnine or a residue containing it, a yellow 
color appears, changing to brick-red, and finally to violet-red. 
HNO3 gives it yellow color in the cold. Pink or red would 
indicate presence of brucine. Physiological test by injecting 
the solution hypodermically into a small frog for the develop- 
ment of tetanic spasms. 

Veratrine. — C 32 H 52 N 2 8 — H 2 S0 4 first turns it yellow, then 
red, and finally purple. Bromine-water colors it violet or purple- 
red. Dissolved in HC1 it is colorless, but on heating turns red # 

SYLLABUS TO PART V. 

(1.) Determine the amount of oxygen present in atmospheric 
air by means of pyrogallic acid, also in the same process, the 
carbon dioxide with potassic hydrate. 

(2.) Determine hardness of water, temporary and permanent, 
with soap test. 

(3.) Determine ammonia in water with Nessler's test. 

(4.) Determine organic matter in water by the permanganate 
test. 

(5.) Examine a specimen of carbonic acid water for copper. 

(6.) Examine water for lead. 

(7.) Determine, approximately, amount of cream in milk. 



l60 APPLIED MEDICAL CHEMISTRY. 

(8.) Determine casein, fat, and lactose in a specimen of milk. 

(9.) Determine amount of water in a specimen of flour, also 
amount of ashes thereof and mineral contaminants by the 
chloroform test, also for ergot. 

(10.) Examine a specimen of bread for alum. 

(11.) Examine a specimen of candy for arsenic, lead, and 
fuchsin. 

(12.) Determine alcohol in a specimen of wine. 

(13.) Test a specimen of beer for glycerin, and picric acid, 
and bitter alkaloids. 

(14.) Take specific gravity of a specimen of whiskey and 
brandy and determine amount of alcohol present by weight. 

(15.) Examine whiskey or brandy for presence of fusel oil, 
also by Molnar's test for other ethers present. 

(16.) Determine amount of acetic acid present in vinegar; 
also show admixtures of sulphuric acid and capsicum. 

(17.) Show the presence of an alkaloid (morphine) in a solu- 
tion, and determine the amount of morphine present therein. 

(18.) Show color-reaction for picrotoxin and digitalin. 

(19.) Determine the presence of aconitine by test. 

(20.) Show the test for coniine. 

(21.) Show tests for morphine and how to distinguish it from 
quinine. 

(22.) Examine a specimen of quinine for its purity. 

(23.) Apply the tests for strychnine and veratrine. 

(24.) Recognize atropine by its chemical test. 



APPENDIX. 



PTOMAINES. 

The source of these interesting compounds, as indicated by 
their name, are cadavers (nrw/ia^ in the state of putrescence. 
Chemically they are amines, and as they resemble the alkaloids 
of the previous part in many respects, they are in contradistinc- 
tion to those of vegetable origin, termed " cadaveric alkaloids." 
They cannot be limited in number and variety, and depend for 
their chemical character and physiological action on the prog- 
ress and degree of putrescence, and the conditions under 
which this takes place. When speaking of their source as 
cadavers, this must not be construed to apply to corpses alone, 
but to all diseased organic bodies containing albuminoid mate- 
rial. The decaying cheese and sausage, fish, fowl, or meat, 
the albumins and peptones, all are capable of developing alka- 
loidal substances, which, in their character, closely simulate 
those of vegetable origin, and while many of them exert no 
deleterious effect on the human organism, others, like many 
vegetable alkaloids, are possessed of powerful toxic properties. 

Their presence is of the greatest interest and value to the 
physician, not alone in a sanitarian and forensic sense, but ac- 
cording to recent researches, also as pathogenic elements. 

It has been long known * that putrid meats, fish, cheese, and 
fowl, are capable of producing most alarming and often fatal 
effects, not alone as gastro- intestinal irritants, but also at times 
by giving rise to neurotic symptoms. Salads from decaying 
fowls are a well-known source of disease, as are those of stale 
lobsters and other similar material; affections arising from the 
consume of partly decayed or decaying meats are almost of 
daily occurrence, while choleraic attacks can be frequently 
traced to them, and cases are on record where poisoning by 



1 62 APPENDIX. 

alkaloidal substances was suspected when the fatal effect had 
to be looked for in the decaying food. It is especially claimed 
that slow decay, in the presence of little or no oxygen, is pro- 
ductive of decidedly poisonous basic products, and that view 
would be borne out by the many ill effects experienced after 
eating canned and badly preserved meats, fish, etc. 

The toxicologist finds in the ptomaines the most difficult 
subject in his differentiation between them and the poisonous 
alkaloidal substances introduced into the system with criminal 
intent. Not alone that the ptomaines closely resemble the 
vegetable alkaloids in their physical characters, but also in their 
chemical reactions and physiological effects there exists often 
great similarity. In view that they are comparatively little 
known, and that many of them possessing even closer resem- 
blance, than those we are already acquainted with, may yet be 
detected, the toxicologist must act with the greatest reserve 
when deciding on the origin of organic poisons, especially as 
their extraction is obtained in much the same way as the known 
vegetable alkaloids. It is only the closest comparison of the 
physiological effects that would, in such cases, aid a decision, 
along with the close correspondence of all the chemical reac- 
tions in confirmation thereof. In many instances the ptomaines 
correspond with the alkaloids in some special reactions, while 
in others they differ. Some of them have been observed which 
exhibit the same reaction with H 2 S0 4 and potassic bichromate 
as strychnine, while others show the color reaction of veratrine 
with H 2 S0 4 , and like it turn red with HC1; others exhibit some 
of the digitalin reactions, and again, there are some extracted 
with amylic alcohol from alkaline solutions, which show the 
reduction of iodic acid like morphine. 

Their reductive power might be utilized as a general reaction 
by the reduction of potassic ferricyanide to ferrocyanide, which, 
in the presence of a ferric salt, gives rapidly a dark blue pre- 
cipitate of ferric ferrocyanide ; but even this is inadmissible, as 
well known to pertain to some vegetable alkaloids as well, 
although not in as decided degree, and as not even characteristic 
of all ptomaines. The color, odor, and character of some liquid 
volatile ptomaines closely correspond to those of coniine and 
nicotine, while others show a mydriatic effect, and still others 



PTOMAINES. 163 

produce tetanic spasms. Those resembling strychnine, how- 
ever, are not crystalline (at least not yet so obtained), and are 
not as intensely bitter as that vegetable alkaloid. Those giving 
the veratrine reaction lack its physiological effect, while that 
apparently analogous with digitalin fails to give a reaction with 
H 2 S0 4 and bromine ; the cadaveric morphine does not give the 
blue color with ferric chlqride like vegetable morphine, and the 
mydriatic ptomaine fails to give the characteristic odor pro- 
duced by atropine when heated with sulphuric or phosphoric 
acid. Besides this, as has been shown, the vegetable alkaloids 
exert a rotary power on polarized light, whereas the ptomaines 
are said to be optically inactive. It is evident, therefore, that 
though a differentiation between ptomaines and vegetable alka- 
loids may be satisfactorily arrived at, this can be done only 
after careful observation and experimentation with every known 
test, and its confirmation by the physiological action, and then 
only those who have the necessary experience and experimental 
skill required for this purpose. 



164 



APPENDIX. 



Table of Elements. 



a 

CO 



Aluminium Al 

Antimony 

(Stibium) Sb 

Arsenic As 

Barium Ba 

Beryllium 

(Glucinum)... Be 

Bismuth Bi 

Boron B 

Bromine Br 

Cadmium.. Cd 

Caesium Cs 

Calcium Ca 

Carbon C 

Cerium Ce 

Chlorine CI 

Chromium iCr 

Cobalt Co 

Copper 

(Cuprum) Cu 

Didymium D 

Erbium Eb 

Fluorine V 

Gallium Ga 

Gold (Aurum) .. Au 

Hydrogen H 

Indium In 

Iodine I 

Iridium Ir 

Iron (Ferrum ) .. Fe 

Lanthanum La 

Lead 

(Plumbum)... Pb 

Lithium Li 

Magnesium Mg 

Manganesium... Mn 
Mercury 
(Hydrargyrum) Ilg 



Atomic 
valence. 



Ill, V 
iii, V 
ii, iv 

ii 
iii, v 
iii 
i, iii, v, vii 
ii 
i 

ii 

ii, iv 

iii, iv 

i, iii, v, vii 

iii, vi 
ii, iii, vi 

i, ii, 
iii 
iii 
i 

iii 

i, iii 

i 

iii 

i, iii, v, vii 126.6 

ii, iv. vi 192.7 

ii, iii, vi 

iii 






< £ 



27 



11, IV 

i 

ii 
ii, iv, vi 

ii 



120 

74-9 
U6.8 



9 

210 

11 

79.8 
111.8 
132.6 
40 
12 
141 
354 
5 2 -4 
58.9 

63.2 
144.6 
165.9 

19 

68.8 
196.2 

1 
"3 4 



55-9 
I38-5 



206.5 

7 
24 
54 

199.7 



CO 



Molvbdenum Mo 

Nickel Ni 

Niobium Nb 

Nitrogen N 

Osmium Os 

Oxygen O 

Palladium Pd 

Phosphorus P 

Platinum Pt 

Potassium 

(Kalium) K 

Rhodium Rh 

Rubidium Rb 

Ruthenium Ru 

Scandium Sc 

Selenium Se 

Silicium Si 

Silver 

(Argentum) .. Ag 
Sodium 

i Natrium) Na 

Strontium Sr 

Sulphur S 

Tantalum Ta 

Tellurium Te 

Thallium Tl 

Thorium Th 

Tin (Stannum).. Sn 

Titanium Ti 

Tungsten or 

Wolfram W 

Uranium U 

Vanadium V 

Ytterbium Yb 

Yttrium Y 

Zinc Zn 

Zirconium Zr 



Atomic 
valence. 



w 4J 

t he 






11, iv, vi 95.5 

ii, vi 58.1 

iii, v I 94 

i, iii, v ' 14 
ii,iv, vi,viii 198.5 

ii 16 

ii, iv 105.7 

iii, v ^1 
ii, iv 



194.4 



11, 111, IV 
i 



39 
104. 1 

85-3 

11, iv, vi, vm 104.2 

iii 44 

11, iv, vi 78.8 

iv 28 

107.7 



1 


23 


11, IV 


87.4 


11, IV, VI 


S2 


V 


182 


11, IV, VI 


128 


1, 111 


203.7 


IV 


233 


11, IV 


II7.7 


. iv 


48 


ii, iv, vi 


183.6 


IV, VI 


238.5 


111, V 


5i-3 


111 


172.7 


in 


89.8 


11 


64.9 


IV 


90 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 165 



Weights and Measures. 



METRIC AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS. 



1 milligram = 0.001 gram. = 

1 centigram = 0.01 " 

1 decigram =0.1 " 

1 gram = 

1 decagram = 10 grams 

1 hectogram = 100 '' 

1 kilogram = 1000 '' 



= 0.015 gr. Troy. 
= 0.154 " 


1 grain Troy, 
1 drachm Troy. 


= 0.0648 gram, 
= 3.888 grams, 


= 1-543 " " 


1 ounce " 


= 3 x - io 3 " 


= 15-434 g". " 
= 154-34 '' " 


1 " Br. P. 
1 " Avoird. 


= 28.35 " 
= 28.35 " 


= 3-53 ° 2S - '' 
= 35-27 " " 


1 pound Troy, 12 oz. 
1 " Avoird. 


= 373.242 " 
= 453-6 



METRIC AND ENGLISH MEASURES. 



1 millimetre = 0.001 metre = 

1 centimetre =0.01 " = 

1 decimetre =0.1 " = 

1 metre = = 

1 decametre = 10 metres = 

1 hectometre = 100 '* = 

1 kilometre = 1000 " = 32 



0.03937 inch. 


1 inch 


= 


0.0254 metre, 


0-3937 " 
3.937 inches. 


1 foot 
1 yard 


== 


0.3048 " 
0.9144 " 


39.3704 

32 ft. 9.7 " 


1 rod 
1 turlong 


= 


5.0292 metres. 
201.1662 " 


328 " 1 inch. 
280 " 10.4 inches. 


1 mile 


= 


1609.3297 " 



METRIC AND APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURES. 



1 millilitre, cubic centimetre 


1 minim 


= 0.061 c. c. 


or C. C. = 0.001 litre 


= 16.23 minims. 


1 fluiddrachm 


= 3-7 


1 centilitre = 0.01 " 


= 2.71 fluiddrachms. 


1 fluidounce 


— 29.6 " 


1 decilitre =0.1 " 


= 3.38 fluidounces. 


1 pint 


= 0.47 litre. 


1 litre = 

1 decalitre = 10 litres 

1 hectolitre = 100 " 


= 33.81 fluidounces. 
= 2.6417 galls. 
== 26.417 "' 


1 quart 
1 gallon 


= 0.946 " 
= 3.785 litres. 


i kilolitre = 1000 " 


= 264.17 







Rules for Converting Apothecaries' into Metric Weights and 
Measures, according to Oldberg. 

1. To express quantities by weight of the Apothecaries' system in metric terms, 
or to write medical prescriptions in metric weights. 

Rule A. Reduce each quantity to grains ; then divide the number by 10 (or 
move the decimal point one place to the left), and from the quotient subtract one- 
third. The remainder is in each case the number of grams representing (nearly) 
the same quantity. Or, 

Rule B. Reduce each quantity to drachms, and multiply the number by 4. 
The product is in each case the number of grams representing (nearly) the same 
quantity. Or, 

Rule C. Reduce each quantity to ounces, and multiply the number by 32. The 
product is in each case the number of grams representing (nearly) the same 
quantity 

2. To express quantities by measure of the Apothecaries' system in metric 
terms, or to write medical prescriptions in metric cubic measures. 

Rule D. Reduce each quantity to minims ; then divide the number by 10 (or 
move the decimal point one place to the left/, and from the quotient subtract one- 
third. The remainder is in each case the number of cubic centimetres represent- 
ing (nearly) the same quantity. Or, 

Rule E. Reduce each quantity to fluid drachms, and multiply the number by 
4. The product is in each case the number of cubic centimetres representing 
(nearly) the same quantity. Or, 

Rule F. Reduce each quantity to fluid ounces, and multiply the number by 32. 
The product is in each case the number of cubic centimetres representing (nearly) 
the same quantity. 



1 66 



APPENDIX. 



Table of Equivalents of Centigrade and Fahrenheit Thermo- 
metry Scales. 



Cent. 


Fahr. 


Cent. 


Fahr. 


Cent. 


Fahr. 


Cent. 


Fahr. 


Cent. 


Fahr. 


o 




















c 








—40 


— 40.0 


— II 


-j-12.2 


+ I8 


+64.4 


+47 


-fll6.6 


+ 76 


4-168.8 


39 


38.2 


IO 


I4.O 


19 


66.2 


48 


1 18.4 


77 


I70.6 


38 


36.4 


9 


15.8 


20 


68.0 


49 


I20.2 


78 


I72.4 


37 


34-6 


8 


17.6 


21 


69.8 


5° 


I22.0 


79 


174.2 


36 


32.8 


7 


I9.4 


22 


71.6 


5i 


I23.8 


80 


I76.O 


35 


31.0 


6 


21.2 


23 


73-4 


52 


I25.6 


81 


177.8 


34 


29.2 


5 


23.O 


24 


75-2 


53 


I27.4 


82 


I79.6 


33 


27.4 


4 


24.8 


25 


77.0 


54 


I29.2 


83 


181.4 


32 


25.6 


5 
j 


26.6 


26 


78.8 


55 


I3I.O 


84 


183.2 


3i 


23.8 


2 


28.4 


27 


80.6 


56 


132.8 


85 


185.O 


30 


22 


1 


30.2 


28 


82.4 


57 


I34.6 


86 


186.8 


29 


20.2 





32.O 


29 


84.2 


58 


I36.4 


87 


188.6 


28 


18.4 


+ 1 


33-8 


3° 


86.0 


59 


138,2 


88 


I9O.4 


27 


16.6 


2 


35- 6 


31 


87.8 


60 


I4O.O 


89 


192.2 


26 


14.8 


3 


37-4 


32 


89.6 


61 


141. 8 


90 


194.O 


25 


13.0 


4 


39-2 


33 


91.4 


62 


143.6 


91 


I95.8 


24 


11. 2 


5 


41.0 


34 


93-2 


63 


145-4 


92 


I97.6 


23 


9.4 


6 


42.8 


35 


95-o 


64 


147.2 


93 


I99.4 


22 


7.6 


7 


44.6 


36 


96.8 


65 


149.0 


94 


20I.2 


21 


5.8 


8 


46.4 


37 


98.6 


66 


150.8 


95 


203.O 


20 


4.0 


9 


48.2 


38 


100.4 


67 


152.6 


96 


204.8 


19 


2.2 


10 


50.0 


39 


102.2 


68 


154-4 


97 


206.6 


18 


0.4 


11 


51.8 


40 


104.0 


69 


156.2 


98 


208.4 


17 


+ 1.4 


12 


53-6 


41 


105.8 


70 


158.0 


99 


2I0.2 


16 


3-2 


13 


55-4 


42 


107.6 


7i 


159.8 


100 


2I2.0 


15 


5-o 


14 


57-2 


43 


109.4 


72 


161. 6 


IOI 


213.8 


14 


6.8 


15 


59.o 


44 


HI. 2 


73 


163.4 


102 


215.6 


13 


8.6 


16 


60.8 


45 


113.0 


74 


165.2 


103 


217.4 


12 


10.4 


17 


62.6 


46 


1148 


75 


167.0 


104 


219.2 



Rules for Converting Centigrade into Fahrenheit. 

(D to stand for the degree to be converted.) 
If above the freezing point of water, 32 F. (o° C), — X 9 4- 32. 

If below freezing, but above o°F. ( — iy.jj C.), 32 — ( — ) 



If below o°F. (—17.770c.) 



~V7 x q) _3: 



Rules for Converting Fahrenheit into Centigrade. 

(D 72) 

If above the freezing point of water, 32° F. (o° C.) > — X 5. 



(-12 D^ 

If below freezing, but above o° F. (—17.77° C.) — X2 — < 5. 



If below o° F. (—1777° C.) 



9 

(D432) 



X5- 



TABLE OF THE TENSION OF AQUEOUS VAPOR. 



167 



Table of the Tension of Aqueous Vapor {after Bunse'i). 



°c. 


Milli- 


°C. 


Milli- 


°c. 


Milli- 


°C. 


Milli- 


metres. 


metres. 


metres. 


metres. 


— 2.0 


3-955 


6.2 


7-095 


14.4 


I2.220 


22.6 


20.389 


— 1.8 


4.016 


6.4 


7-193 


14.6 


I2.378 


22.8 


20.639 


—1.6 


4.078 


6.6 


7.292 


14.8 


12.538 


23.0 


20.888 


—1.4 


4.140 


6.8 


7-392 


15.0 


I2.699 


23.2 


2I.I44 


— 1.2 


4.203 


7.0 


7.492 


15.2 


12.864 


234 


21.4OO 


— 1.0 


4.267 


7.2 


7-595 


154 


I3.O29 


23-6 


21.659 


—0.8 


4-331 


7-4 


7.699 


15.6 


I3-J97 


23.8 


2I.92I 


—0.6 


4-397 


7-6 


7.840 


15.8 


13.366. 


24.0 


22.184 


—0.4 


4-463 


7-8 


7.910 


16.0 


I3-536 


24.2 


22.453 


— 0.2 


4.531 


8.0 


8.017 


16.2 


13.710 


24.4 


22.723 


— 0.0 


4.600 


8.2 


8.126 


16.4 


13.885 


24.6 


22.996 


-(-0.2 


4.667 


8.4 


8.236 


16.6 


14.062 


24.8 


23.273 


0.4 


4-733 


8.6 


8-347 


16.8 


14.241 


25.0 


23.550 


0.6 


4.801 


8.8 


8.461 


17.0 


14.421 


25.2 


23.834 


0.8 


4.871 


9.0 


8-574 


17.2 


14.605 


254 


24.II9 


1.0 


4.940 


9.2 


8.690 


174 


14.790 


25.6 


24.406 


1.2 


5.011 


9.4 


8.807 


176 


14-977 


25.8 


24.697 


I.4 


5.082 


9-6 


8.925 


17.8 


15.167 


26.0 


24.988 


1.6 


5-155 


9.8 


9-°45 


18.0 


15-357 


26.2 


25.288 


1.8 


5.228 


10.0 


9.165 


18.2 


I5-552 


26.4 


25.588 


2.0 


5-302 


10.2 


9.288 


18.4 


15-747 


26.6 


25.89I 


2.2 


5-378 


10.4 


9.412 


18.6 


15-945 


26.8 


26.I98 


2.4 


5-454 


10.6 


9-537 


18.8 


16.145 


27.0 


26.505 


2.6 


5-53o 


10.8 


9.665 


19.0 


16.346 


27.2 


26.82O 


2.8 


5.608 


11. 


9.792 


19.2 


16.552 


27.4 


27.136 


3° 


5.687 


11. 2 


9-923 


19.4 


16.758 


27.6 


27455 


3-2 


5-767 


11.4 


10.054 


19.6 


16.967 


27.8 


27778 


3-4 


5.848 


11.6 


10.187 


19.8 


17.179 


28.0 


28.IOI 


3-6 


5-93° 


11. 8 


10.322 


20.0 


I7.39I 


28.2 


28.433 


3-8 


6.014 


12.0 


10.457 


20.2 


17.608 


28.4 


28.765 


4.0 


6.097 


12.2 


10.596 


20.4 


17.826 


28.6 


29.IOI 


4.2 


6.183 


12.4 


10.734 


20.6 


18.047 


28.8 


29.441 


4.4 


6.270 


12.6 


10.875 


20.8 


18.271 


29.0 


29.782 


4.6 


6 -35o 


12.8 


11.019 


21.0 


18.495 


29.2 


30.I3I 


4.8 


6-445 


13.0 


1 1. 1 62 


21.2 


18.724 


29.4 


30.479 


5.o 


6-534 


13.2 


11.309 


21.4. 


18.954 


29.6 


30.833 


5- 2 


6.625 


13-4 


11.456 


21.6 


19.187 


29.8 


31 I90 


5-4 


6.717 


13.6 


11.605 


21.8 


19423 


30.0 


3I-548 


5.6 


6.810 


13-8 


"•757 


22.0 


19.659 






5.8 


6.904 


14.0 


11.908 


22.2 


19.901 






6.0 


6.998 


14.2 


12.064 


22.4 


20.143 







INDEX. 



Acetone in urine, 112 
Acetyl hydrate, 84 
Aconitine, 156 
Acid albumin, 64 

acetic, 84 

acetic (as test), 23 

amido-acetic, 77 

amido-caproic, 67 

arsenic, 38 

arsenious, 38 

benzoylamido-acetic, 77 

butyric, 84 

carbolic, 56 

caproic, 85 

cholic, 78 

ethalic, 85 

formic, 84 

glycocholic, 77 

hippuric, 77 

hydrochloric, 55 

hydrochloric (as test 1 ), 23 

hydrocyanic, 56 

hypophosphorous, 49 

metaphosphoric, 50 

metaphosphoric, as test for albumin 
in urine, 107 

nitric, 54 

nitric (as test), 23 

ortho-phosphoric, 50 

oleic, 86 

oxalic, 56 

oxalic (as test), 23 

palmitic, 85 

parabanic, 76 

phosphoric, glacial, 50 

phospho-tungstic, as test for albu- 
min in urine, 107 

picric (as test), 23 

picric, as test for albumin in urine, 
107 

picric, as test for sugar in urine, 
109 

propionic, 84 

pyro-phosphoric, 50 

stearic, 85 

succinic, 86 

sulphuric, 53 



Acid, sulphuric (as test), 23 

sulphurous (as test), 23 

tannic (as test), 24 

tartaric (as test), 24 

taurocholic, 78 

valerianic, 85 
Albumin (as test), 24 

determination of, in urine, 106 
Albuminoids, 61 
Albumose, 64 
Alcohol (as test), 24 

absolute (as test), 24 

cholesteric, 83 

ethylic, 83 

propenylic, 83 
Allantoin, 76 

its detection in urine, 1 15 
Alloxantin, 75 
Alkali albumin, 65 
Alkaloids, 153 

in urine, 118 

picric acid as precipitant of, 154 

phospho-molybdic acid as precipi- 
tant of, 1 54 

potassio-bismuthic iodide as pre- 
cipitant of, 154 

potassio-mercuric iodide as precipi- 
tant of, 154 

precipitants of, 153 

separation of, by Stas-Otto method. 

tannic acid as precipitant of, 153 

volumetric determination of, 154 
Aluminium (as test), 24 

alkaline test, 41 
Amnionic carbonate (as test), 24 

chloride (as test), 24 
Amido-mercuric chloride, 45 
Ammonia-water (as test), 24 
Ammonic hydrate, 53 

oxalate (as test), 24 

phosphate (as test), 24 

purpurate, 75 

sulphydrate (as test), 24 

urate, acid, 75 

urate in urinary calculi, 123 
Ammonio-cupric sulphate, 43 



12 



170 



INDEX. 



Amygdalin, 155 
Amyloid substance, 66 
Atnyloses, 79 
Analysis, 19 

volumetric, 19 
Aniline sulphate (as test), 24 
Antimony, 35 

golden sulphide of,. 37 

oxide, 36 

pentasulphide, ^7 

trichloride, 36 

trisulphide, 37 
Apomorphine, 156 
Argentic nitrate (as test), 24 

nitrate, ammoniated (as test), 24 
Arsenic, 37 

its detection in urine, 117 

pentasulphide, 38 

pentoxide, 38 

tribromide, 38 

trichloride, 38 

triodide, 38 

trioxide, 38 

trisulphide, 38 
Atmospheric air, 132 

analysis of, 132 
determination of aqueous va- 
por in, 132 
determination of carbon diox- 
ide in, 132 
determination of oxygen in, 

133 

Atropine, 156 

Auric chloride (as test), 24 



Baric chloride (as test), 24 

hydrate (as test), 24 

nitrate (as test), 24 
Barometer, 10 
Basic cupric acetate, 43 
Benzin (as test), 24 
Benzoyl glycocin, 77 
Biliary acids, tests for, 78 

their detection in urine, 1 14 

concretions, 124 

pigments and acids, their detection 
in urine, 1 14 
Bilifulvin, 70 
Bilifusin, 71 
Bilineurine, 73 
Bilphsein, 70 
Biliprasin, 71 

in biliary concretions, 125 
Bilirubin, 70 

in biliary concretions-, 125 
Biliverdin, 71 

in biliary concretions, 125 
Blood ferment, 66 

in urine, 1 12 

tests, 70 



Borax (as test), 24 

Boedecker's test, 107 

Boettger's test for sugar in- urine, 109 

Brandy, 151 

acidity of, 152 

acloholic strength of, 152 

Molnar's test for, 152 
Bread, 145 

composition of, 145 

detection of alum in, 146 

examination of, 146 
Bromides, their detection in urine, 1 17 
Bromine-water (as test), 24 



Caffeine, 156 

Calcic carbonate in urinary calculi, 124 

chloride (as test), 24 

glycocholate in biliary concretions, 

125 

hydrate (as test), 24 

phosphate, neutral, in urinary cal- 
culi, 124 

oxalate in urinary calculi, 124 

urate acid, 75 

urate in urinary calculi, 123 
Calomel, 45 
Cane-sugar, 81 
Carbamide, 73 
Carbohydrates, 79 
Carbon bisulphide (as test\24 
Carnin, 76 
Casein, 65 

Chlorine-water (as test), 24 
Chloroform (as test), 24 
Chlorates, their detection in urine, 1 17 
Cholepyrrhin, 70 
Cholesterin, 83 

in biliary concretions, 125 
Choline, "JT, 
Chondrin, 68 
Chondrogen, 68 
Chondroglucose, 68 
Cinchonidine, 156 
Cinchonine, 157 
Coagulated albumins, 66 
Codeine, 157 
Colchicine, 157 
Collagens, 68 
Confections and candies, 147 

examination for poisonous pig- 
ments in, 147 
Coniine, 157 

Correction of gases for temperature, 2>3 
Corrosive sublimate, 45 
Copper, 42 

(as test), 24 
Crystallin, 64 
Crystallization, 16 
Cruorin, 69 
Cupric carbonate, 43 



INDEX. 



171 



Cupric di- acetate, 43 

nitrate, 42 

oxide, 42 

sulphate, 42 

sulphate (as test), 25 

sulphate, ammoniated (as test), 25 

sulphide, 43 
Cuprous oxide, 42 

sulphide, 43 
Cursory examination of urine, 120 
Cystin, 79 

detection in urine, 115 

in urinary calculi, 123 



Decantation, 17 
Dessication, 17 
Dextrin, 80 
Dextrose, 82 
Di-cupric carbonate, 43 
Digitalin, 156 
Distillation, 18 



Egg albumen, 63 
Elastin, 69 
Emetine, 157 
Erythrocruorin, 69 
Ether (as test), 25 
Evaporation, 18 
Excretin, 129 



Faeces and their analyst, 126 
Fats, their detection in urine, 1 16 
Fehling's standard solution, 29 

test for sugar in urine, 1 10 
Feme chloride (as test), 25 

hydrate, 39 
Ferrous sulphate (as test), 25 

sulphide (as test), 25 
Fermentation test for sugar in urine, 1 10 
Fibrin, 65 
Fibrinogen, 63 
Fibrinoplastin, 64 
Filtration, 17 
Flame tests, 22 
Fleitmann's test, 42 
Flour, 144 

composition of, 144 

detection of ergot in, 145 

detection of mineral contaminants 
in, 145 

examination of, 145 
Frohde's test, 26 



Galvanism, 10 

Gases, measurement of, ^2 

Gelatin, 68 

(as test), 25 



Globulin, 64 
Globulins, 63 
Glucoses, 79 
Glucosides, 155 
Glycerides, 86 
Glycerin, 83 
Glycin, 77 
Glycocin, 77 
Glycocol, 77 
Glycogen, 80 
Glyoxyldiurea, 76 
Gmelin's test, 114 
Gold (as test), 25 
Grape -sugar, 82 
Gravity, 9 
Guanin, 76 



Haematin, 70 

its detection in urine, 113 
Haemato-crystallin, 69 
Haemato-globulin, 69 
Haematoporphyrin, 70 
Haemm, 70 

its detection in urine, 113 
Haemochromogen, 70 
Haemoglobin, 69 
Hippuric acid, determination of, 

urine, 102 
Hydrobilirubin, 71 
Hydrogen (as test), 25 

antimonide, 36 

arsenide, 38 

phosphide, 49 

sulphide (as test), 25 

sulphide-water (as test), 25 
Hydrometers, 13 
Hyoscyamine, 157 
Hypobromite solution, 99 
Hypochlorite solution, 99 
Hypoxanthin, 76 



Incineration, 18 
Indican, 71 

determination of, in urine, 105 
Indicators, 30 
Indigo in urinary calculi, 123 

solution (as test), 25 
Indigogen, 71 
Indol, 126 
Inosit, 82 

Iodides, their detection in urine, 117 
Iodine tincture (as test), 25 

water (as test), 25 
Iodinized potassic iodide (as test), 25 



Keratin, 69 
Kermes mineral, 37 
Kreatin, 79 



172 



INDEX. 



Kreatinin, 79 

determination of, in urine, 103 



Lactine, 81 
Lactometer, 143 
Lactose, 81 
Lardacein, 66 
Lead, 47 

acetate, neutral, 48 

basic, acetates of, 48 

carbonate, 48 

chromate, 48 

iodide, 48 

its detection in urine, 118 

monoxide, 47 

nitrate, 48 

ortho-plumbate, 47 

sulphate, neutral, 48 

sulphide, 49 
Lecithin, 87 
Leucin, 67 

and tyrosin, their detection in 
urine, 1 15 
Litmus-paper, blue, 27 
red, 27 



Magnesic-carbonate in urinary calculi, 
124 
sulphate (as test), 25 
urate in urinary calculi, 124 
Magnesium (as test), 25 

mixture (as test), 25 
Malt liquors, 149 

alcoholic strength of, 149 
adulterations of, 149 
extractives in, 149 
glycerin in, 149 
picric acid in, 150 
picrotoxine in, 150 
specific beer test for, 149 
strychnine in, 150 
sugar in, 149 
Maltose, 81 
Marsh's test, 41 
Melanin, 72 
Mercury, 44 

its detection in urine, 11S 
Mercuric chloride, 45 

chloride (as test), 25 
cyanide, 45 
iodide, 45 
nitrates, 45 
oxide, 44 
sulphate, 45 
sulphide, 45 
Mercurous chloride, 45 
chloride (as test), 25 
iodide, 45 
nitrates, 45 



Mercurous oxide, 44 

sulphate, 45 

sulphide, 45 
Mesoxalyl-tartronyldiurea, 75 
Mesoxalylurea, 75 
Metaglobulin, 63 

Metric and apothecaries' fluid measures, 
165 

and English measure, 165 

and English weights, 165 
Millon's reagent, 25 
Milk, 141 

butter in, 142 

casein in, 142 

composition of, 142 

composition of ashes, 142 

contaminants of, 143 

determination of cream in, 144 

examination of, 142 

gases in, 142 

sugar of, 142 
Morphine, 157 

Moore's test for sugar in urine, 109 
Mucin, 69 

its detection in urine, 108 
Mulder-Neubauer's test for sugar in 

urine, 109 
Muscle-fibrin, 64 
Muscle-sugar, 82 
Murexid, 75 

test, 101 
Myosin, 64 



Narceine, 158 
Narcotine, 158 
Nessler's test, 26 
Neurine, 73 



Olein, 87 

Osmosis, 12 

Ossein, 68 

Ov-albumen, 63 

Oxalic acid, determination of, in urine, 

103 
Oxalylurea, 76 
Oxyhemoglobin, its detection in urine, 

113 



Palmitin, 86 

Pancreatic concretions, 125 

Pancreatin, 73 

Paraglobulin, 64 

Parapeptone, 64 

Paris green, 39 

Pepsin, 72 

Peptones, 63 

their detection in urine, 108 
Pettenkofer's test, 78 



INDEX. 



173 



Pharmaceutical preparations and their 
active principles, 152 
determination of resins in, 153 
Phenolphtalein (as test), 26 
Phosphates in urine, 93 
Phosphorus, white, 49 

red, 49 

pentoxide, 49 

trioxide, 49 
Physostigmine, 158 
Picnometer, 12 
Picrotoxin, 156 
Pilocarpine, 158 
Platinic chloride (as test), 26 
Plumbic acetate (as test), 26 
basic (as test), 26 
paper, 27 
Polarimetry, 11 
Potassio-antimony tartrate, 36 
Potassic arsenite, 39 

bichromate (as test), 26 

chromate, neutral (as test), 26 

cyanide (as test), 26 

ferricyanide (as test), 26 

ferrocyanide (as test), 26 

hydrate, 52 

hydrate (as test), 26 

iodide (as test), 26 

nitrate (as test), 26 

n trite (as test), 26 

permanganate (as test), 26 

sulphocyanide (as test), 26 

urate in urinary calculi, 123 
Potassio-mercuric iodide (as test), 26 

with potassic hydrate (as 
test), 26 
Precipitate, weighing of, 17 
Precipitation, 16 
Preserved fruits and vegetables, 146 

examination for metallic 
contaminants, 147 
Protagon, 87 
Proteid substances in urinary calculi, 

123 
Ptomaines, 161 
Ptyalin, 72 



Quinine, 158 



Reinsch's test, 38 

Rules for converting degrees of ther- 

mometric scale, 166 
for converting measures and 

weights, 165 



Saccharimetry by polarization, no 
Saccharoses, 79 
Salicin, 156 



Sanitary chemistry, 131 

Santonin, 156 

Sarkin, 76 

Scheele's green, 39 

Seralbumin, 62 

Serine, 62 

Serum albumin, 62 

Skatol, 126 

Soap test, Clarke's, 26 

Soda-lime (as test), 26 

Sodic acetate (as test), 26 

arsenate, 39 

bicarbonate (as test), 26 

bitartrate (as test), 26 

chloride in urine, 93 

glycocholate, 78 

hydrate, 52 

hydrate (as test), 26 

hypochlorite (as test), 26 

hyposulphite (as test), 26 

molybdate (as test), 26 

phosphate (as test), 26 

urate acid, 75 

urate in urinary calculi, 123 
Solutions, 15 
Solution, argentic nitrate, standard, 29 

potassic hydrate, standard, 28 

oxalic acid, standard, 27 
Specific gravity, 12 
Spectroscopy, n 
Starch, 79 

mucilage (as test), 26 

paper, 27 
Stercobilin, 71 
Stearin, 86 
Stibamine, 36 
Strychnine, 159 
Sugar, its determination in urine, 108 

of lead, 48 
Sulphates in urine, 96 
Syntonin, 64 



Table of Dietrich, 100 

of elements, 164 

of tension of aqueous vapor, 167 
Tanret's solution as volumetric test for 

albumin in urine, 107, 108 
Tartar emetic, 36 
Taurin, 78 
Thermometers, 10 
Thermometric equivalents, 166 
Trommer's test for sugar in urine, 109 
Turmeric paper, 27 
Tyrosin, 67, 73 



Urea, 73 

determination of, in lime, 98 
in urine, 97 
nitrate, 74 



174 



INDEX. 



Urea oxalate, 74 
Ureostealith, 123 
Uric acid, 74 

determination of, in urine, 

101 
in urinary calculi, 122 
Urine, 89 

analysis of, 93 
color of, 92 
gases of, 93 

normal composition, 92 
normal constituents of, 93 
reaction of, 93 
specific gravity, 91 
Urinary calculi, combustible, 122 
incombustible, 1 24 
partially combustible, 123 
concretions, 121 

their chemical examination, 
122 
sediments, 119 
Urobilin, 71 

detection in urine, 104 
Urochrome, 71 
Uromelanin, 71 
Uropittin, 71 
Uroxanthin, 71 



Veratrine, 159 

Vinegar, 152 

acidity of, 152 

detection of capsicum in, 152 

detection of sulphuric acid in, 

I5 2 

metallic contaminations of, 152 

Vitellin, 64 



Water, 135 

ammonia in, 1 37 

analysis of, 135 

chlorides in, 137 

copper in, 139 

determination of metallic contami- 
nants in, 140 

hardness of, 136 

lead in, 139 

metallic contaminations of, 139 

nitrites in, 137 

organic matter in, 137 

temporary hardness of, 136 

purification of, 141 

iron in, 139 
Weight, 9 
Whiskey, 150 

acidity of, 151 

alcohol in, 151 

fusel oil in, 151 

Molnar's test for, 151 
White precipitate, 45 
Wines, 147 

alcoholic strength of, 148 

determination of acidity of, 148 

examination for fuchsin in red, 148 

examination for lead in, 148 

sugar in, 148 



Xanthin, 76 

in urinary calculi, 123 



Zinc (as test), 26 

chloride, determination of kreati- 
nin in urine by, 103 



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Crown Octavo. Cloth, $4.00 ; Leather, $5.00 



P. BLAKISTON, SOX & CO.'S 

CROWN OCTAVO 

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YEO'S MANUAL OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

Full Glossary and Index. By Gerald F. Yeo, m.d., f.r.c.s., Professor of Physiology 
in King's College, London. 750 pages. Over 300 carefully printed Illustrations. 

Cloth, 54.00 ; Leather, $5.00 

" The brief examination I have given it was so favorable that I placed it in the list of text-books recom- 
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Stre:: rk. 

" For students' use it is one of the very best text-books in Physiology." — Prof. L. B. How, Dartmouth Med. 
College, Hanoz'er , N. H. 

GOODHART AND STARR ON CHILDREN. 

A Manual of the Diseases of Children, with Formulae. By J. F. Goodhart, m.d., 
Physician to the Evelina Hospital for Children; Assistant Physician to Guy's 
Hospital, London. American Edition, revised and edited by Louis Starr, m.d., 
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Pennsylvania ; Physician to the Children's Hospital, Philadelphia. 700 pages. 

Cloth, S3. 00 ; Leather, 54.00 

WARING'S THERAPEUTICS. (New Edition.) 

A Manual of Practical Therapeutics. By Edward J. Waring, m.d. Fourth Edition, 
rewritten and revised by Dudley YV. Buxton, m.d., Assistant to the Professor of 
Medicine in University College, London. About 700 pages. In Pre*s. 

REESE'S MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE and TOXICOLOGY. 

A Text-book of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology. By John J. Reese, m.d., 
Professor of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology in the Medical and Law- 
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Medico-legal Society. 606 pages. 

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RICHTER'S CHEMISTRY. (Inorganic and Organic.) 

By Prof. Victor von Richter, University of Breslau. Authorized translation by 
Edgar F. Smith, m.a., ph.d., Professor of Chemistry in Wittenberg College, 
Springfield, Ohio ; formerly in the Laboratories of the University of Pennsylvania 
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Paris, of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, etc., etc. 

Inorganic Part. From Third Edition. 89 Wood-cuts and Colored Plate of Spectra. 
424 pages. Cloth, 52.00 

Organic Part. From Fourth Edition. Illustrated. In Press. 

" We have examined with much care the 'Inorganic Chemistry' of Prof. Victor von Richter, recently trans- 
lated by Dr. E. Y . Smith. Both theoretical and general chemistry are treated in such a clear and comprehen- 
sive manner that it has become one of the leading text-books for a University course in Germany. N\ e are in- 
debted to Dr. Smith for his translation of this excellent work, which may help to facilitate the study of chemistry 
in this country." — F. A. Genth, Prof, of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania. 

These manuals are recommended to the profession on account of the concise, 
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have been published, combining all the advantages of the large text-books at much 
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American Health Primers. 

Edited by W. W. KEEN, M.D., 

Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. 

This Series of American Health Primers is prepared to diffuse as widely and cheaply as 
possible, among all classes, a knowledge of the elementary facts of Preventive Medicine, and 
the bearings and applications of the latest and best researches in every branch of Medical and 
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take care of themselves, their children, pupils, employes, etc. 

Handsome Cloth Binding, 50 cents, each. 

Sent, postpaid, upon receipt of price, or may be obtained from any book store. 



HEARING, AND HOW TO KEEP IT. With Illustrations. By Chas. H. Burnett, 
m.d., Aurist to the Presbyterian Hospital, Professor in the Philadelphia Polyclinic. 

LONG LIFE, AND HOW TO REACH IT. By J. G. Richardson, m.d., Professor 
of Hygiene in the University of Pennsylvania. 

THE SUMMER AND ITS DISEASES. By James C. Wilson, m.d., Lecturer on 
Physical Diagnosis in Jefferson Medical College. 

EYESIGHT, AND HOW TO CARE FOR IT. With Illustrations. By Geo. C 
Harlan, m.d., Surgeon to the Wills (Eye) Hospital, and to the Eye and Ear Department, 
Pennsylvania Hospital. 

THE THROAT AND THE VOICE. With Illustrations. By J. Solis Cohen, m.d., 
Professor of Diseases of the Throat and Chest in the Philadelphia Polyclinic. 

THE WINTER AND ITS DANGERS. By Hamilton Osgood, m.d., of Boston, 
Editorial Staff Boston JMedical and Surgical Journal. 

THE MOUTH AND THE TEETH. With Illustrations. By J. W. White, m.d., 
d.d.s., of Philadelphia, Editor of the Dental Cosmos. 

BRAIN WORK AND OVERWORK. By H. C. Wood, Jr., m.d., Clinical Professor 
of Nervous Diseases in the University of Pennsylvania. 

OUR HOMES. With Illustrations. By Henry Hartshorne, m.d., of Philadelphia, 
formerly Professor of Hygiene in the University of Pennsylvania. 

THE SKIN IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. By L. D. Bulkley, m.d., of New 
York, Physician to the Skin Department of the Demilt Dispensary and of the New York 
Hospital. 

SEA AIR AND SEA BATHING. By John H. Packard, m.d., of Philadelphia, Sur- 
geon to the Pennsylvania and to St. Joseph's Hospitals. 

SCHOOL AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE. By D. F. Lincoln, m.d., of Boston, 
Chairman Department of Health, American Social Science Association. 

"Each volume of the 'American Health Primers' The Inter- Ocean has had the pleasure to commend. In 
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New English Books. 



GOWERS. DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. Lectures delivered at 
University College Hospital, by W. R. Gowers, m.d., f.r.c.p., Physician to the National 
Hospital for the Paralyzed and Epileptic. London. Octavo. Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 

ALLBUTT. VISCERAL NEUROSES. Being the Gulstonian Lectures on Neuralgia 
of the Stomach and Allied Disorders, delivered at the Royal College of Physicians. By 
T. Clifford Allbutt, m.d. Cantab., f.r.s. 8vo. Cloth, $1.50 

LIEBREICH'S ATLAS OF OPHTHALMOSCOPY. Composed of 12 Chromo-litho- 
graphic Plates (containing 59 figures) with text translated by H. R. Swanzy, m.d. Third 
Edition. 4to. Boards, $15.00 

LEGG ON THE URINE. A Practical Guide to the Examination of the Urine. By J. 
Wickham Legg, m.d. Sixth Edition, Revised and Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, .75 

CULLINGWORTH. A MANUAL OF NURSING. Medical and Surgical. By 
Charles J. Cullingworth, m.d. Second Edition. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, $1.00 

WELCH. ENTERIC FEVER. Its Prevalence and Modifications; ^Etiology, Pathology 
and Treatment. By Francis H. Welch, f.r.c.s. 8vo. Cloth, $2.00 

WELLS. ABDOMINAL TUMORS. Tneir Diagnosis and Surgical Treatment. By 
Sir Spencer Wells, Bart., late President of the Royal College of Surgeons, of England. 
Illustrated. 8vo. 216 pages. Cloth, $1.50 

CHURCHILL. FACE AND FOOT DEFORMITIES. By Frederick Churchill, 
m.d., cm., Surgeon to the Victoria Hospital for Children. With Illustrations of New 
Appliances for the Cure of Birth-mark, Club Foot, etc. 8vo. Cloth, $3.50 

DOMVILLE. MANUAL FOR HOSPITAL NURSES and others engaged in attend- 
ing on the Sick. With Recipes for Sick-room Cookery. By Ed. J. Domville, m.d. 
Fifth Edition, Revised. i2mo. * Cloth, .75 

PAGE. INJURIES OF THE SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, without apparent 
mechanical lesion, and Nervous Shock, in their Surgical and Medico-legal Aspects. By 
Herbert W. Page, m.d., m.c. Cantab., f.r.c.s. Eng., Surgeon to, and Lecturer on 
Surgery at, St. Mary's Hospital, London, Second Edition, Revised. Cloth, $3.50 

TUKE. SLEEP-WALKING AND HYPNOTISM. By D. Hack Tuke, m.d., 
f.r.c.p., co-editor of the Journal of Mental Diseases. 8vo. Cloth, $1.75 

LEE. THE MICROSCOPISTS VADE-MECUM. A Handbook of the Methods of 
Microscopic Anatomy. By Arthur Bolles Lee. Part I, Collection of Formulae. 
Part II, Special Methods, etc. 424 pages. i2mo. Cloth, $3.00 

CRIPPS. ON THE DISEASES OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS, including a 
portion of the Jacksonian Prize Essay on Cancer of the Rectum. By Harrison Cripps, 
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plates. 8vo. Cloth, $4.50 

S WAYNE. OBSTETRIC APHORISMS. For the use of Students and Physicians. 
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revised, with several important additions. Illustrated. i2mo. Cloth, #1.25 

COOPER ON SYPHILIS AND PSEUDO-SYPHILIS. By Alfred Cooper, f.r.c.s. 
Eng., Senior Surgeon to Out- Patients, with charge of Male Wards, Lock Hospital; Sur- 
geon to St. Mark's Hospital, London. 8vo. Cloth, $3.50 

DUNCAN ON STERILITY IN WOMEN. Being the Gulstonian Lectures for 1883. 
Delivered in the Royal College of Physicians of London. By J. Matthews Duncan, 
m.d. 8vo. Cloth, $2.00 

WARNER. CLINICAL MEDICINE AND CASE TAKING. By Francis 
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NOW READY FOR 1886. 

The Physician's Visiting List. 

(LINDSAY & BLAKISTON'S.) 
PUBLISHED ANNUALLY; NOW LN ITS THIRTY-FIFTH YEAR. 

Containing Calendar, List of Poisons and Antidotes, Dose Tables rewritten in accord- 
ance with the Sixth Revision of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, Marshall Hall's Ready 
Method in Asphyxia, Lists of New Remedies, Sylvester's Method for Producing 
Artificial Respiration, with Illustrations ; Diagram for Diagnosing Diseases of 
Heart and Lungs ; a new Table for Calculating the Period of Utero-Gestation, etc. 

ZJ^tP" 5 The Quality of the Leather used in Binding this List has been again Improved, a?id a 
Superior Pencil, with Nickel Tip, manufactured especially for it, has been added. 

SIZES AND PRICES. 

For 25 Patients weekly. Tucks, pockets, etc., $1.00 

50 " " " " 1.25 



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100 " " " " 2.00 

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50 2 V01S * )July to Dec. j 2l5 ° 

tt cc it- 1 T J an - to June 1 

100 " " 2 Vols. 1 t 1 4. t^ t ^.oo 

( July to Dec. j ° 

INTERLEAVED EDITION. 

For 25 Patients weekly. Interleaved, tucks, etc., 1.25 

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50 2 V01S * (July to Dec. ) 3 -°° 

Perpetual Edition, without Dates, can be commenced at any time and used until full, similar 
in style, contents and arrangements to the above. 

For 25 Patients, Interleaved, $1.25 
" 50 " " 1.50 

" For completeness, compactness, and simplicity of arrangement it is excelled by none in the market." — N. Y. 
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" The book is convenient in form, not too bulky, and in every respect the very best Visiting List published."— • 
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" After all the trials made, there are none superior to it." — Gaillard's Medical Journal. 

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"This Visiting List is too well known to require either description or commendation from us." — Cincinnati 
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Physician's Ledger and Cash Book Combined. 

WEEKLY AND MONTHLY. 

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MEDICAL JOURNALS 

Published by P. BLAKISTON, SON & CO. 

THE LONDON MEDICAL TIMES 

AND GAZETTE. 

33 Pages Weekly for ^5.00 per Ajmrum, Post-Free. 

Commencing with the number for January 5th, 1884, the London, " Medical Times 
and Gazette " underwent an alteration in the size of page, that makes it much more con- 
venient for handling and binding. A clearer type, better accommodated to the eye, has been 
employed, and an increase in the number of pages made, thus increasing the amount of reading 
matter. The contents will be printed on the first page of reading matter, enabling them to 
be bound up with the volume, and a redtiction in the price, of one-half, makes it at once one 
of the cheapest and best Weekly Medical Papers now published. 

CONTENTS. — The contents of each number consist of several original Lectures or Contributions, Reports of 
Cases from the large London or British Government Hospitals, Editorial Notes on current topics, New Methods 
of Treatment and Research, New Discoveries, Remedies, Etc. Leading Articles, Reviews and Book Notices, 
Abstracts and Selections, Reports of the London and Foreign Medical Societies, Medical Notes and News, Etc. 
As A representative London Journal the " Medical Times " is among the first, and its 
low price, compared with other foreign journals of the same size, brings it within the reach of 
every physician who wishes to keep acquainted with the progress of Medical Science abroad as 
well as at home. 

THE POLYCLINIC. 

A monthly Journal of Medicine and Surgery, conducted bv the Faculty of the Philadel- 
phia Polyclinic and College for Graduates in Medicine. HENRY LEFFMANN, M. D., 
Editor in Chief. Published on the 15th day of each month. Now in its second volume. 

Subscription, per annum, $1.00. 

Partial List of Contributors to Vol. i. — Dr. J. Solis-Cohen, on the Throat, Etc.; 
G. C. Harlan, M. D., Ophthalmology; Prof. Roberts Bartholow, Nervous Prostration; S. "Weir 
Mitchell and C. K. Mills, M. D., Nervous Diseases; Dr. Arthur Van Harlingen, Vice-Presi- 
dent of the American Dermatological Society, on Skin Diseases ; Prof. Jas. Tyson, The Albu- 
min Test Etc.; Jas. C. Wilson, M. D.; Prof. Theophilus Parvin, Obstetrical Reports; Drs. John 
15. Roberts and Thos. G. Morton, General Surgery and Hospital Reports; Dr. J. Henry C. 
Simes, Syphilis, Chancre, Urethritis, Etc.; Prof. Henry Leffmann, Alcoholism, Chemical Notes, 
Poisoning, Tests, Hypnotism, Etc.; Charles H. Burnett, M. D., Otology; Dr. E. O. Shakespeare, 
and others. 

CONTENTS.— Original Clinical Lectures, or Articles, Editorials, Book Reviews, Medical Notes, Selec- 
tions, Translations, Hospital and Society Reports. 

THE OPHTHALMIC REVIEW. 

A monthly record of Ophthalmic Science, now in its third volume. 

Subscription, per annum, $3.00. 
The Ophthalmic Review is the only journal devoted to this special branch of medicine 
that is published in England, and therefore represents the advances made in that country, as no 
other periodical can. 

CONTENTS. — The principal contents of each number are original articles with some illustrations, transla- 
tions of German or French articles, Bibliography, Etc. 

ANNALES DES MALADIES DE 

L'OREILLE DU LARYNX 

ET DES ORGANES CONNEXES. 

Bi-Monthly. Subscription $3.00. 

The publishers beg to announce that Dr. J. Solis-Cohen, of Philadelphia, has accepted the 
American Editorship of this periodical, and Dr. Morell Mackenzie the English Editorship, 
and that hereafter it will endeavor to be international in character, one-half of the articles be- 
ing in French and one-half in English. Any articles can now be published in either language, 
at the wish of the author. English contributions will be preceded by short abstracts in French. 

fi^^SPECIAL NOTICE. — When two or more of these journals are taken, club rates will 
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Practical Handbooks 

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VAN HARLINGEN ON SKIN DISEASES. 

A Handbook of the Diagnosis and Treatment of Skin Diseases. By Arthur Van 
Harlingen, m.d., Professor of Diseases of the Skin in the Philadelphia Polyclinic ; 
Consulting Physician to the Philadelphia Dispensary for Skin Diseases, and Derma- 
tologist to the Howard Hospital. With colored plates representing the appearance 
of various lesions. i2mo. Cloth, $1.75. 

" This new handbook is essentially a small encyclopedia of pathology and treatment of Skin Diseases, in 
which the subjects are arranged alphabetically. This arrangement was that followed by the late Tilbury Fox, of 
London, in his handbook, which we believe was remarkably successful ; and we have no doubt that it will be 
equally appreciated in the present work, which (compendious in form) contains a very complete summary of the 
present state of dermatology. Dr. Van Harlingen's position in the profession, being at present vice-president of 
the American Dermatological Association, which he served as secretary for several years, and the high standard 
of his communications to his department, are sufficient to warrant the confidence in his teachings, which is fully 
sustained by an examination of this handbook, which we heartily commend for its brevity, clearness and evident 
careful preparation." — Philadelphia Medical Tivies. 

RINDFLEISCH'S PATHOLOGY. 

The Elements of Pathology. By Prof. Edward Rindfleisch, University of Wiirz- 
burg. Authorized translation from the first German edition, by Wm. H. Mercur, m.d. 
(Univ. of Pa.) Revised by James Tyson, m.d., Professor of Pathology and Morbid 
Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania. i2mo. Cloth, $2.00. 

Prof. Tyson, in his Preface to the American edition, says: — " A high appreciation of Prof. Rindfleisch's 
work on Pathological Histology, caused me to make careful examination of these ' Elements ' immediately after 
their publication in the original. From such an examination I became satisfied that the book would fill a niche 
in the wants of the student, as well as of others who may desire to familiarize themselves with general patho- 
logical processes, viewed from the most modern standpoint. " 

BRUEN'S PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS. Second Edition. 

A Pocket-book of Physical Diagnosis of the Heart and Lungs ; for the Student 
and Physician. By Edward T. Bruen, Demonstrator of Clinical Medicine in the 
University of Pennsylvania ; Lecturer on Pathology in the Woman's Medical College 
of Philadelphia. 2d Edition, revised, with new original illustrations. i2mo. 
Cloth, $1.50. 

" We consider the description of the manner and rules governing the art of percussion well given. The sub- 
ject is always a difficult one for beginners, and requires to be well handled in order to be properly understood." — 
American Journal of Medical Sciences. 

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE URINE. 

Chemical Analysis of the Urine ; based in part on Casselmann's Analyse des 
Harns. By Edgar F. Smith, ph. d., Professor of Chemistry in Wittenberg College ; 
Member of the Chemical Society of Berlin ; and John Marshall, m.d., n. sc. d. 
(Tubingen), Demonstrator of Chemistry, Medical Department University of Penn'a. 
Illustrated by phototype plates. i2mo. Cloth, $1.00. 

GILLIAM'S ESSENTIALS OF PATHOLOGY. 

The Essentials of Pathology. By D. Tod Gilliam, m. d., Professor of Physiology, 
Starling Medical College, Columbus, Ohio. With 47 wood engravings. i2mo. 
Cloth, $2.00. 

From a Review by G. A. Piersol, m.d., Demonstrator of Normal Histology in the Medical Department of the 
University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia. Published in the Western Medical Reporter. 

" We remember hearing, some time since, one of our most eminent men of 
science — a savant in every sense — make the remark, 'Regarding subjects with which 
I am unfamiliar, I find I always learn the most from elementary works.' * * * 
With this fact fully appreciated by the author, the little volume before us was con- 
ceived ; ' not intended to supplant more pretentious works by allaying, but rather to 
lead up to them by kindling, a thirst for pathological investigation.' * * * The 
arrangement of the matter is well adapted to present the subject in a clear and 
attractive manner." 

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The Practical Series. 

A SET OF COMPACT HANDBOOKS FOR THE 
PHYSICIAN AND STUDENT. 



Under this title it is proposed to issue a series of compact, practical books on the 
various branches of Medicine, Surgery and Gynaecology. The volumes will be pre- 
pared by authors of known capability, who have made special studies of the subjects 
upon which they write. It will be the special aim of each writer to give the latest 
information in the most concise manner consistent with usefulness and practicability. 
The three great questions of Diagnosis, Prognosis and Treatment will be 
especially borne in mind and worked out to the best advantage, so that the most 
important points may be caught at once by the reader. 

NOW READY. Handsomely Bound in Red Cloth. 

BODILY DEFORMITIES AND THEIR TREATMENT. A Handbook of 
Practical Orthopaedics. By H. A. Reeves, f.r.c.s., Senior Assistant Surgeon 
and Teacher of Practical Surgery at the London Hospital ; Surgeon to the Royal 
Orthopaedic Hospital, etc. i2mo. 228 Illustrations. 460 pages. Cloth. S3. 25. 

" From what we have already said, it will be seen that Mr. Reeves has given us a trustworthy guide for the 
treatment of a very extended class of cases. * * * * If the other volumes of the Practical Series are as good 
as this, we shall be agreeably disappointed." — American Journal of Medical Sciences, April, 1883. 

" Within the compass of 450 pages this well-known surgeon has managed to compress an amount of practical 
information concerning orthopaedics that is truly astonishing. * * * * The whole subject of orthopaedics is 
treated from the standpoint of the general as well as the orthopaedic surgeon, which, in our eyes, is one of the 
chief recommendations of the book. The judicial fairness which marks the consideration of differing plans of 
treatment, and the distinct enunciation that indications alone must be considered, and that any apparatus must 
be used which will best carry these out and which is available to the practitioner or patient in each individual 
case, is another remarkable feature of the book. * * * * We have rarely been so much pleased with any 
book, and it is one which we shall recommend as a text-book to our classes." — The Polyclinic. 

" The utility of the work now before us cannot be better recommended to the appreciation of the professional 
reading public, than by recalling that it is the first of its kind dealing with orthopaedics from a modern stand- 
point." — Hospital Gazette and Students' journal. • 

DENTAL SURGERY FOR GENERAL PRACTITIONERS AND STUDENTS 
OF MEDICINE. By Ashley W. Barrett, m.d., m.r.cs., Eng., Surgeon- 
Dentist to, and Lecturer on Dental Surgery and Pathology in the Medical 
School of, London Hospital. i2mo. Illustrated. Cloth. $1.00. 

"Replete with an abundance of practical information of unquestionable utility." — Hospital Gazette and 
Students' "Journal. 

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEY, AND MORBID CONDITIONS OF THE 
URINE, Dependent on Functional Derangements. By C. H. Ralfe, m.a., m.d., 
f.r.cp., Assistant Physician to the London Hospital ; late Senior Physician to 
the Seamen's Hospital, Greenwich. i2mo. With Illustrations. Nearly Ready. 

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? QUIZ-COMPENDS ? 

A NEW SERIES OF PRACTICAL MANUALS FOR THE PHYSICIAN AND STUDENT. 

Compiled in accordance with the latest teachings of prominent lecturers 
and the most popular Text-books. 

They form a most complete set of Compends, containing information nowhere else collected 
in such a condensed, practical shape. The authors have had large experience as quiz masters 
and attaches of colleges, with exceptional opportunities for noting the most recent advances in 
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types, are all of the most improved form, and the size of the books is such that they may be 
easily carried in the pocket. 

Bound in Cloth, each $1.00. Interleaved, for the Addition of Notes, $1.25. 



No. 1. Human Anatomy. Third Edi- 
tion. Illustrated. By Samuel O. L. 
Potter, m.a., m.d., late A. A. Surgeon U. 
S. Army. With 63 Illus. 3d Revised Ed. 

"To those desiring to post themselves hurriedly for 
examination, this little book will be useful in refreshing 
the memory." — New Orleans Med. and Surg. Jl. 

Nos. 2 and 3. Practice of Medicine. 
Especially adapted to the use of Students 
and Physicians. By Daniel E. Hughes, 
M.D., Demonstrator of Clinical Medicine in 
Jefferson Med. College, Phila. In two parts. 

Part I. — Continued, Eruptive and Periodical Fev- 
ers, Diseases of the Stomach, Intestines, Peritoneum, 
Biliary Passages, Liver, Kidneys, etc (including Tests 
for Urine), General Diseases, etc. 

Part II. — Diseases of the Respiratory System (in- 
cluding Physical Diagnosis), Circulatory System and 
Nervous System ; Diseases of the Blood, etc. 

*%* These little books can be regarded as a full set of 
notes upon the Practice of Medicine, containing the 
Synonyms, Definitions, Causes, Symptoms, Prognosis, 
Diagnosis, Treatment, etc., of each disease, and includ- 
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No. 4. Physiology, including Embry- 
ology. Second Edition. By Albert P. 
Brubaker, M.D., Prof, of Physiology, Penn'a 
College of Dental Surgery; Demonstrator 
of Physiology in Jefferson Med. College, 
Phila. Revised and Enlarged. 
" This is a well written little book." — London Lancet. 

No. 5. Obstetrics. Illustrated. Second 
Edition. For Physicians and Students. 
By Henry G. Landis, m.d., Prof, of Ob- 
stetrics and Diseases of Women, in Starling 
Medical College, Columbus. Revised Ed. 
New Illustrations. 

" We have no doubt that many students will find in 
it a most valuable aid." — The Amer.Jl. of Obstetrics. 

No. 6. Materia Medica and Therapeu- 
tics. Second Revised Edition. With 
especial Reference to the Physiological Ac- 
tions of Drugs. For the use of Medical, 
Dental and Pharmaceutical Students, and 
Practitioners. Based on the New Revision 
(Sixth) of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, and 
including many unofhcinal remedies. By 



Samuel O. L. Potter, m.a., m.d., late A. 
A. Surg. U. S. Army. Revised Edition, 
with Index. 

" One of the very best we have ever seen." — Southern 
Clinic. 

No. 7. Inorganic Chemistry. New Edi- 
tion. By G. Mason Ward, m.d., Demon- 
strator of Chemistry in Jefferson Med. Col- 
lege, Phila. Including Table of Elements 
and various Analytical Tables. New Ed. 

" This neat pocket volume is a brief but excellent 
compend of inorganic chemistry and simple analysis of 
the metals." — Pharmaceutical Record, N. Y. 

No. 8. Visceral Anatomy. Illustrated. 
By Samuel O. L. Potter, m.a., m.d., late 
A. A. Surg. U. S. Army. With 40 Illus. 

" Worthy our recommendation to students, and a 
ready reference to the busy practitioner." — Chicago 
Med. Times. 

No. 9. Surgery. Second Edition. Illus- 
trated. Including Fractures, Wounds-, 
Dislocations, Sprains, Amputations and other 
operations; Inflammation, Suppuration, Ul- 
cers, Syphilis, Tumors, Shock, etc. Dis- 
eases of the Spine, Ear, Eye, Bladder, Tes- 
ticles, Anus, and other Surgical Diseases. 
By Orville Horwitz, a.m., m.d., Resident 
Physician Pennsylvania Hospital, Phil'a. 
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
With 62 Illustrations. 

"Will prove very useful, both to the student and 
practitioner." — Valentine Mott, m.d., Ass't to the 
Prof, of Surgery , Bellevue Hospital, New York. 

No. 10. Organic Chemistry. Including 
Medical Chemistry, Urine Analysis, and the 
Analysis of Water and Food, etc. By Henry 
Leffmann, m.d., Demonstrator of Chemis- 
try in Jefferson Med. College; Prof, of 
Chemistry in Penn'a College of Dental 
Surgery, Philadelphia. 

" It is a useful and valuable addition to the series of 
Quiz-Compends." — College and Clinical Record. 

No. 11. Pharmacy. By Louis Genois, 
ph.g., Member of the Amer. Pharmaceutical 
Association. In Preparation. 



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HOLDEN'S ANATOMY. Fifth Edition. Just Ready. 

A Manual of the Dissections of the Human Body. By Luther Holden, m.d., f.r.c.s., 
Consulting Surgeon to St. Bartholomew's and the Foundling Hospitals, London, 
assisted by John Langton, f.r.c.s., Surgeon to and Lecturer on Anatomy in St. 
Bartholomew's Hospital. Fifth Edition. Revised and Enlarged, with 208 Illus- 
trations, many of them new. Octavo. One Handsome Volume. 

Cloth, $5.00; Leather, $6.00 

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to write ; and the student understands him fully, because every statement is definitely and clearly put. There is 
not an involved sentence, or one capable of being misunderstood, in any of his writings. * * * The new edi- 
tion has been entirely revised by Mr. Langton, is enlarged by about 200 pages, and contains thirty new wood-cuts. 
* * * The publishers are to be congratulated on the appearance of the book : in binding, clearness of type, and 
well defined illustrations, it leaves little or no room for improvement." — London Lancet. 

ROBERT'S PRACTICE. Fifth American Edition. 

A Handbook of the Theory and Practice of Medicine. By Frederick T. Roberts, 
m.d., b.Sc, f.r.c.p., Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and of Clini- 
cal Medicine, at University College ; Physician to University College Hospital 
and to Brompton Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest ; Examiner 
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Edition. 8vo. Illustrated. Cloth, £5.00; Leather, $6.00 

*V* The whole work has been subjected to careful and thorough revision by the 
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and additions have been made throughout. Several new illustrations have also been 
introduced. It is recommended as a text-book at the University of Pennsylvania, 
Yale and Dartmouth Colleges, University of Michigan, and many other Medical 
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BIDDLE'S MATERIA MEDICA. Ninth Edition. 

Materia Medica, For the L T se of Students and Physicians. By Prof. John B. 
Biddle, m.d., Professor of Materia Medica in Jefferson Medical College. The 
Ninth Edition, thoroughly revised, and in many parts rewritten, by his son, 
Clement Biddle, m.d., Assistant Surgeon U. S. Navy, assisted by Henry 
Morris, m.d., one of the Demonstrators in the Jefferson Medical College. 8vo. 

Cloth, $4.00; Leather, $4.75 

" Nothing has escaped the writer's scan. All the new remedies against disease are duly and judiciously noted. 
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MEIGS AND PEPPER ON CHILDREN. Seventh Edition. 

A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of Children. By J. Forsyth Meigs, m.d., one 
of the Physicians to the Pennsylvania Hospital; Consulting Physician to the 
Children's Hospital, etc., and William Pepper, m.d., Professor of the Practice 
of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, and Provost and ex-ofhcio President 
of the Faculty ; Physician to the Philadelphia Hospital. The Seventh Revised 
and Improved Edition. 8vo. Cloth, $6.00 ; Leather, $7.00 

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new form cannot fail to make friends wherever it shall go, and wherever great erudition, practical tact, and fluent 
and agreeable diction are appreciated." — American Journal of Obstetrics. 

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